Parents contribute unequal amounts of non-nuclear DNA to their offspring
Parents contribute unequal amounts of non-nuclear DNA to their offspring because mitochondrial DNA is predominantly inherited maternally while paternal mitochondrial contributions are typically degraded or excluded.
The retrieved literature strongly affirms that mitochondrial DNA (non-nuclear DNA) is transmitted primarily through the maternal line, with paternal contributions either actively destroyed or reduced to negligible amounts, thereby making the parental contributions unequal.
Miyuki Sato, Ken Sato. Maternal inheritance of mitochondrial DNA by diverse mechanisms to eliminate paternal mitochondrial DNA.. 2013. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.bbamcr.2013.03.010
Paper 0 details how maternal inheritance dominates because paternal mitochondrial DNA is actively eliminated after fertilization.
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J. Vissing. Paternal comeback in mitochondrial DNA inheritance. 2019. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1821192116
Paper 2 discusses the general rule of strict maternal transmission of mtDNA alongside rare instances of paternal contributions.
Wen Hu, Jiting Zhang, Zhaoqi Wu, Yi Wu, Yuhui Hu, Xiaohui Hu, Jinguo Cao. Research progress on paternal mitochondrial inheritance: An overview.. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mito.2025.102019
Paper 5 notes that mitochondrial inheritance is predominantly maternal, though minor paternal transmission can occasionally occur.
Zixin Qi, Jiaoxu Shi, Yue Yu, Guang-mei Yin, Xiaoyun Zhou, Yongyao Yu. Paternal Mitochondrial DNA Leakage in Natural Populations of Large-Scale Loach, Paramisgurnus dabryanus. 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/biology13080604
Paper 6 documents occasional paternal mitochondrial DNA leakage resulting in heteroplasmy in certain natural populations.
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