Psychometric tools exist for measuring the subjective difficulty of mental activities

Re-examining cognitive load measures in real-world learning: Evidence from both subjective and neurophysiological data.. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12729

BACKGROUND Cognitive load theory is widely used in educational research and instructional design, which relies heavily on conceptual constructs and measurement instruments of cognitive load. Due to its implicit nature, cognitive load is usually measured by other related instruments, such as commonly-used self-report scales of mental effort or task difficulty. However, these concepts are different in nature, as they emphasize distinct perspectives on cognitive processing. In addition, real-world learning is more complex than simplified experimental conditions. Simply assuming that these variables will change in a monotonic way with workload may be misleading. AIMS This study aims to examine whether these measures are consistent with each other, and to discover the neurophysiological basis underlying the potential discrepancy. SAMPLE The study collected data in both a real-world (Study 1, 22 high school students in 13 math classes) and a laboratory setting (Study 2, 30 students in 6 lab-based math tasks). METHODS In addition to self-report measures, the study also collected multimodal neurophysiological data, such as electroencephalography (EEG), electrodermal activity (EDA), and photoplethysmography (PPG). RESULTS The results show that although the difficulty level can be perceived with difficulty ratings, it does not lead to the corresponding level of mental effort. Only within an appropriate level of load, can we observe a positive correlation between self-report difficulty and mental effort. Neurophysiological evidence also supports the conceptual discrepancies and group differences, indicating distinct neurophysiological mechanisms underlying these 'similar' constructs. CONCLUSIONS These findings also emphasize the need for combining these concepts to better evaluate students' cognitive load.

fNIRS, EEG, ECG, and GSR reveal an effect of complex, dynamically changing environments on cognitive load, affective state, and performance, but not physiological stress. 2025. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnhum.2025.1459653

This study used functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), electroencephalography (EEG), electrocardiography (ECG), electrodermal activity (EDA), performance, and subjective self-reports to investigate cognitive load and stress in a complex, dynamically changing environment. A total of 30 participants (N = 30) were assigned to three Tetris gameplays: Easy and Hard had constant difficulties, and Ramp started at a low difficulty level before successively ramping up to a very high difficulty level. Participants performed significantly better in Easy, followed by Ramp and Hard. In general, increased workload resulted in increased cognitive load and stress, but only up to a certain threshold, after which fNIRS activation reduced, possibly due to mental fatigue or disengagement. Furthermore, we found a temporal effect of workload in the constant workload conditions, evidenced by increased fNIRS activation (HbO increase and HbR decrease), and mental fatigue measured by EEG (Delta power increase). Despite significant differences in cognitive load, we found little between-condition differences in physiological stress response as measured by ECG and EDA. At the same time, Easy yielded significantly higher participant ratings of valence, enjoyment, workload acceptability, and subjective performance, compared to Hard, indicating differing affective states. The combination of undistinguishable physiological stress and varying affective states suggests that participants experienced more of a state of eustress in Easy and distress in Hard conditions.

Role, Methodology, and Measurement of Cognitive Load in Computer Science and Information Systems Research. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3514355

Cognitive load (CL), defined as the mental effort required to process information, plays a pivotal role in user performance and experience in various domains, particularly within computer science (CS) and information systems (IS). As technology grows increasingly interactive, understanding and measuring CL is crucial for designing adaptive, user-centered systems. This study investigates trends in CL measurement techniques in CS and IS research from 2017 to 2024, focusing on emerging tools, methods, and their applications. A systematic literature review (SLR) was conducted to provide a comprehensive overview of CL’s role in CS and IS, the methods used to detect it, and how it is analyzed across different tasks and environments. The motivation behind this research stems from the growing need to optimize user experiences and system efficiency through better CL management. The findings highlight a shift toward multimodal CL measurement, integrating subjective, behavioral, performance-based, and physiological data, often analyzed with machine learning in domains like human-computer interaction, education, and immersive technologies. This research highlights the importance of accurate CL measurement and suggests future directions for enhancing adaptive system design through the integration of CL metrics. Building upon these findings, future research should focus on advancing CL measurement through survey item sequencing, multimodal data integration, and device-task comparisons, while also exploring the use of AI for robust CL detection. Future research should explore survey design, multimodal data integration, device-task comparisons, and AI-based CL detection. Building on these insights, this study proposes developing non-intrusive, adaptive e-learning interfaces to optimize user engagement and personalization within LMS environments.

Gendered Mental Labor: A Systematic Literature Review on the Cognitive Dimension of Unpaid Work Within the Household and Childcare.. 2023. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11199-023-01362-0

With this literature review, we provide a systematic overview on and working definition of mental labor in the context of unpaid work-an inherent cognitive component of daily routines primarily related to domestic or childcare tasks. Our methodology followed PRISMA guidelines, and 31 full-text articles were included. Articles were peer-reviewed and published in social science, sociological, and psychological journals. The studies applied quantitative and qualitative methodological approaches including, interviews, online surveys, observations of family routines, time estimates, and experiments. The samples covered a wide age range, consisting mostly of U.S. American or European middle-class women and men (married or in a relationship). Predominantly, the articles show that women perform the larger proportion of mental labor, especially when it comes to childcare and parenting decisions. Further, women experience more related negative consequences, such as stress, lower life and relationship satisfaction, and negative impact on their careers. We offer an integrative theoretical perspective to explain the gendered distribution of mental labor and cognitive load. We consider theoretical and practical implications of these findings for reducing gender inequality in mental labor in the context of unpaid work within the household and childcare.

Stress and Workload Assessment in Aviation-A Narrative Review.. 2023. https://doi.org/10.3390/s23073556

In aviation, any detail can have massive consequences. Among the potential sources of failure, human error is still the most troublesome to handle. Therefore, research concerning the management of mental workload, attention, and stress is of special interest in aviation. Recognizing conditions in which a pilot is over-challenged or cannot act lucidly could avoid serious outcomes. Furthermore, knowing in depth a pilot's neurophysiological and cognitive-behavioral responses could allow for the optimization of equipment and procedures to minimize risk and increase safety. In addition, it could translate into a general enhancement of both the physical and mental well-being of pilots, producing a healthier and more ergonomic work environment. This review brings together literature on the study of stress and workload in the specific case of pilots of both civil and military aircraft. The most common approaches for studying these phenomena in the avionic context are explored in this review, with a focus on objective methodologies (e.g., the collection and analysis of neurophysiological signals). This review aims to identify the pros, cons, and applicability of the various approaches, to enable the design of an optimal protocol for a comprehensive study of these issues.

Smartphone-Based Self-Assessment of Stress in Healthy Adult Individuals: A Systematic Review.. 2017. https://doi.org/10.2196/jmir.6397

<h4>Background</h4>Stress is a common experience in today's society. Smartphone ownership is widespread, and smartphones can be used to monitor health and well-being. Smartphone-based self-assessment of stress can be done in naturalistic settings and may potentially reflect real-time stress level.<h4>Objective</h4>The objectives of this systematic review were to evaluate (1) the use of smartphones to measure self-assessed stress in healthy adult individuals, (2) the validity of smartphone-based self-assessed stress compared with validated stress scales, and (3) the association between smartphone-based self-assessed stress and smartphone generated objective data.<h4>Methods</h4>A systematic review of the scientific literature was reported and conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) statement. The scientific databases PubMed, PsycINFO, Embase, IEEE, and ACM were searched and supplemented by a hand search of reference lists. The databases were searched for original studies involving healthy individuals older than 18 years, measuring self-assessed stress using smartphones.<h4>Results</h4>A total of 35 published articles comprising 1464 individuals were included for review. According to the objectives, (1) study designs were heterogeneous, and smartphone-based self-assessed stress was measured using various methods (e.g., dichotomized questions on stress, yes or no; Likert scales on stress; and questionnaires); (2) the validity of smartphone-based self-assessed stress compared with validated stress scales was investigated in 3 studies, and of these, only 1 study found a moderate statistically significant positive correlation (r=.4; P<.05); and (3) in exploratory analyses, smartphone-based self-assessed stress was found to correlate with some of the reported smartphone generated objective data, including voice features and data on activity and phone usage.<h4>Conclusions</h4>Smartphones are being used to measure self-assessed stress in different contexts. The evidence of the validity of smartphone-based self-assessed stress is limited and should be investigated further. Smartphone generated objective data can potentially be used to monitor, predict, and reduce stress levels.

Mind. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mind

and ctenophorans. Psychometrics examines how to measure the mental attributes or psychological constructs underlying the variables. For example, IQ tests The mind is that which thinks, feels, perceives, imagines, remembers, and wills. It covers the totality of mental phenomena, including both conscious processes, through which an individual is aware of external and internal circumstances, and unconscious processes, which can influence an individual without intention or awareness. The mind plays a central role in most aspects of human life, but its T… According to substance dualism, minds or souls exist as independent entities in addition to material things. This view implies that, at least in principle, minds can exist without bodies. Property dualism is another view, saying that mind and matter are not independent entities but different properties that apply to the same individual. Monist views, by contrast, state that reality is made up of only one kind. According to metaphysical idealists, for instance, everything is mental. They understand material things as mental phenomena, for example, as ideas or perceptions. According to neutral monists, by contrast, the world is at its most fundamental level neither physical nor mental but neutral. They see physical and mental concepts as convenient but superficial ways to describe reality. The monist view most influential since the 20th century has been physicalism, also referred to as materialism, which states that everything is physical. According to eliminative physicalism, there are no mental phenomena, meaning that things like beliefs and desires do not form part of reality. Reductive physicalists defend a less radical position: they say that mental states exist but can, at least in principle, be completely described by physics without the need for special sciences like psychology. For example, behaviorists aim to analyze mental concepts in terms of observable behavior without resorting to internal mental states. Type identity theory also belongs to reductive physicalism and says that mental states are the same as brain states. While non-reductive physicalists agree that everything is physical, they say that mental concepts describe physical reality on a more abstract level that cannot be articulated by physics. According to functionalism, mental concepts do not describe the internal constitution of physical substances but functional roles within a system. One consequence of this view is that mind does not depend on brains but can also be realized by other systems that implement the corresponding functional roles, possibly also computers. A different approach, found in the tradition of phenomenology, aims to dissolve the mind–body problem by arguing that it…

Self-report Assessment of Metacognition Among Schizophrenia Patients: A Systematic Review.. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1177/02537176261415588

<h4>Purpose of the review</h4>Metacognition is the ability to reflect on and regulate one's own cognitive processes. It is increasingly recognized as a critical factor in schizophrenia, influencing insight, treatment adherence, and functional outcomes. Self-report tools are widely used to assess metacognition, but their reliability, validity, and clinical applicability remain debated.<h4>Collection and analysis of data</h4>This systematic review adhered to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines and was registered with International Prospective Register of Systematic Reviews (PROSPERO). A total of five electronic databases (PubMed, PsycINFO, Embase, Web of Science, and Scopus) were searched for studies published between 2014 and 2024. Eligibility was defined by the Population, Intervention, Comparison, Design (PICO-D) framework, focusing on adults with schizophrenia or schizoaffective disorder assessed with self-report metacognition measures. Study quality was appraised using the COnsensus-based Standards for the selection of health Measurement INstruments (COSMIN) Risk of Bias checklist. Of 2,437 records screened, 36 studies were included. Data were narratively synthesized, with statistical properties such as internal consistency (Cronbach's α), test-retest reliability, and factor structures summarized. Most tools, including the Beck Cognitive Insight Scale (BCIS), Metacognition Assessment Scale (MAS), and Metacognitions Questionnaire (MCQ-30), demonstrated high internal consistency (α = 0.70-0.95) and satisfactory construct validity. Findings consistently linked metacognitive deficits to greater symptom severity, poor social functioning, and reduced treatment response, while higher self-reflection and cognitive flexibility predicted improved clinical and vocational outcomes. However, limitations included reliance on self-report accuracy, limited longitudinal validation, and inadequate cross-cultural adaptation.<h4>Conclusions</h4>Self-report measures of metacognition in schizophrenia exhibit strong psychometric support and clear clinical utility for diagnosis, symptom monitoring, and rehabilitation planning.