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the claim

Apes and monkeys display basic forms of theory of mind, such as understanding what others see or know.

the verdict
CONTESTED
contested - the weight sits with the supporting side
Recorded sources
3 sources for · 2 against

Counts group repeated records of the same source within each side. They do not measure evidence strength or source independence.

Is it true that apes and monkeys display basic forms of theory of mind, such as understanding what others see or know?

Partly. Whether non-human primates possess a theory of mind remains actively contested, with some studies showing gaze and perspective-taking successes while others argue that simpler behavioral mechanisms or failures in controlled tasks explain the results.

Verdict: CONTESTED · 3 sources for, 2 against · Last checked

The evidence we hold leans leans supported

How this was weighed

official record 3x · fact-check 2x · hedged 1x · crowd & reference 1x

  • Canine perspective-taking. · peer-reviewed · supports · weight 1.3 · 2023
  • Gaze patterns and brain activations in humans and marmosets · peer-reviewed · supports · weight 1.3 · 2023
  • Tolerant and despotic macaques show divergent temperament bu · peer-reviewed · supports · weight 1.05 · 2025
  • Vicarious representation: A new theory of social cognition. · peer-reviewed · refutes · weight 1.05 · 2020
  • Do chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) attribute preferences to vi · peer-reviewed · refutes · weight 1.05 · 2025
Evidence for · 3
Canine perspective-taking.
2023
Get citation
L, H. & L, L. (2023). Canine perspective-taking.. doi.org. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10071-022-01736-z

Evidence against · 2
Vicarious representation: A new theory of social cognition.
2020
Get citation
B, N. (2020). Vicarious representation: A new theory of social cognition.. doi.org. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2020.104451

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More for · 2
Gaze patterns and brain activations in humans and marmosets in the Frith-Happé theory-of-mind animation task.
2023
Get citation
A, D., A, Z., J, S., RS, M., & S, E. (2023). Gaze patterns and brain activations in humans and marmosets in the Frith-Happé theory-of-mind animation task.. doi.org. https://doi.org/10.7554/elife.86327

Tolerant and despotic macaques show divergent temperament but similar theory of mind.
2025
Get citation
N, S., R, B., M, M., ZP, M., & AG, R. (2025). Tolerant and despotic macaques show divergent temperament but similar theory of mind.. doi.org. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2024.0121

More against · 1
Do chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) attribute preferences to virtual competitors?
2025
Get citation
E, R. M., M, A., K, S., DBM, H., & J, C. (2025). Do chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) attribute preferences to virtual competitors?. doi.org. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0329468

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