characters used to write reconstructed Proto-Indo-European words (for an explanation of the notation, see Proto-Indo-European phonology). Without proper rendering The Indo-European language family comprises a vast number of languages and dialects spoken throughout the world today. All of these languages are descended from a common ancestor known as Proto-Indo-European, which scholars estimate was spoken about six thousand years ago. This common ancestor has been reconstructed by historical linguists using the comparative method. Sound laws are regular insta The Indo-European language family comprises a vast number of languages and dialects spoken throughout the world today. All of these languages are descended from a common ancestor known as Proto-Indo-European, which… Kortlandt effect (Not fully accepted) Proto-Indo-European *d undergoes debuccalization, becoming the laryngeal *h₁, whenever it is followed by a dental consonant, a consonant followed by a dental, or whenever the following syllable begins with a dental. Examples include Ancient Greek ἑκατόν (hekatón, 'one hundred') from *dḱm̥tom, where the simple loss of the initial *d is attested in forms like Latin centum and Sanskrit शतम् (śatám), but the debuccalization of *d instead of deletion adequately explains the initial aspirate in the Greek term and the deletion in other languages. The process also explains the relationship between the Ancient Greek terms δρέπω (drépō, 'I pluck'), from the Proto-Indo-European root *drep-, and Homeric Greek *ἐρέπτομαι (*eréptomai; 'I feed on, I munch'), from the same root affected by the debuccalization (*h₁rep-). The law is named after the Dutch linguist Frederik Kortlandt, who first proposed the sound change in 1983. The debuccalization appears to have taken place before the Anatolian languages split off from Proto-Indo-European. neog… 1. (Old Irish) Proto-Celtic *b and *u̯ become *β before *n word-internally. The latter change is rare, but occurs in words like Old Irish amnair ('maternal uncle') from Proto-Celtic *au̯n and omun ('fear') from *ɸoβnos. The law appears to have only occurred in contexts where there is no front vowel preceding the cluster, which accounts for apparent counterexamples like Welsh clun ('hip, haunch') from Proto-Indo-European *ḱlownis and Old Irish búan ('permanent') from *bʰewHnos, though some other etymologies account for different sources; the Welsh term may be a later borrowing from Latin clūnis, for example. The law shares a relationship to another Proto-Celtic sound change where *ɸ became *u̯ between either *a or *o and *n. The law is named after the British linguist Kim McCone. 2. (Old Irish) Unless the syllable is stressed, voiceless obstruents are voiced word-initially and word-finally.