The rate at which the outgoing longwave radiation (OLR) responds to perturbations in temperature and moisture plays a fundamental role in determining climate sensitivity. This study examines the clear‐sky OLR sensitivities to temperature and water vapor, as quantified by its partial derivatives (radiative Jacobians). The Jacobians, as computed by the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory (GFDL)'s line‐by‐line (LBL) radiative transfer model are used to verify the results from the parameterized GFDL GCM (general circulation model) radiation code. The results show that the (1) Jacobians of OLR due to incremental changes in temperature and water vapor are insensitive to different formulations of water vapor continuum absorption and (2) Jacobians of OLR are properly captured by the GCM longwave band approximation. Simulations with the GCM demonstrate that uncertainties in the formulation of continuum absorption have little impact on the climate model simulation of clear‐sky OLR changes in response to prescribed sea surface temperature (SST) perturbation. The numerically computed Jacobians of OLR are used to reconstruct the tropical annual mean OLR from the variations of temperature and water vapor over the period 1980–1999. The reconstructed OLR anomaly time series agrees well with that computed explicitly by the GCM. On the basis of this result, it becomes possible to separate out the temperature and water vapor contributions to the OLR variation. The results show that the temperature contribution dominates the water vapor contribution in the lower and middle troposphere, while in the upper troposphere the two contributions largely offset each other.

Radiative cooling is achieved by controlling surface optical behavior toward solar and thermal radiation, offering promising solutions for mitigating global warming, promoting energy saving, and enhancing environmental protection. Despite significant efforts to develop optical surfaces in various forms, five primary challenges remain for practical applications: enhancing optical efficiency, maintaining appearance, managing overcooling, improving durability, and enabling scalable manufacturing. However, a comprehensive review bridging these gaps is currently lacking. This work begins by introducing the optical fundamentals of radiative cooling and its potential applications. It then explores the challenges and discusses advanced solutions through structural design, material selection, and fabrication processes. It aims to provide guidance for future research and industrial development of radiative cooling technology.

fraction, are: water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, ozone. Other greenhouse gases of concern include chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs and HCFCs) Greenhouse gases (GHGs) are the gases in an atmosphere that trap heat, raising the surface temperature of astronomical bodies such as Earth. Unlike other gases, greenhouse gases absorb the radiations that a planet emits, resulting in the greenhouse effect. The Earth is warmed by sunlight, causing its surface to radiate heat, which is then mostly absorbed by greenhouse gases. Without greenhouse gas Greenhouse gases are infrared active, meaning that they absorb and emit infrared radiation in the same long wavelength range as what is emitted by the Earth's surface, clouds and atmosphere. 99% of the Earth's dry atmosphere (excluding water vapor) is made up of nitrogen (N2) (78%) and oxygen (O2) (21%). Because their molecules contain two atoms of the same element, they have no asymmetry in the distribution of their electrical charges, and so are almost totally unaffected by infrared thermal radiation, with only an extremely minor effect from collision-induced absorption. A further 0.9% of the atmosphere is made up by argon (Ar), which is monatomic, and so completely transparent to thermal radiation. On the other hand, carbon dioxide (0.04%), methane, nitrous oxide and even less abundant trace gases account for less than 0.1% of Earth's atmosphere, but because their molecules contain atoms of different elements, there is an asymmetry in electric charge distribution which allows molecular vibrations to interact with electromagnetic radiation. This makes them infrared active, and so their presence causes greenhouse effect.

Water vapor and carbon dioxide are the most dominant greenhouse gases directly contributing to the Earth's radiation budget and global warming. A performance evaluation of an airborne triple-pulsed integrated path differential absorption (IPDA) lidar system for simultaneous and independent monitoring of atmospheric water vapor and carbon dioxide column amounts is presented. This system leverages a state-of-the-art Ho:Tm:YLF triple-pulse laser transmitter operating at 2.05 μm wavelength. The transmitter provides wavelength tuning and locking capabilities for each pulse. The IPDA lidar system leverages a low risk and technologically mature receiver system based on InGaAs pin detectors. Measurement methodology and wavelength setting are discussed. The IPDA lidar return signals and error budget are analyzed for airborne operation on-board the NASA B-200. Results indicate that the IPDA lidar system is capable of measuring water vapor and carbon dioxide differential optical depth with 0.5% and 0.2% accuracy, respectively, from an altitude of 8 km to the surface and with 10 s averaging. Provided availability of meteorological data, in terms of temperature, pressure, and relative humidity vertical profiles, the differential optical depth conversion into weighted-average column dry-air volume-mixing ratio is also presented.

Abstract Accurate knowledge of the distribution of water vapor in Earth's atmosphere is of critical importance to both weather and climate studies. Here we report on measurements of total column water vapor (TCWV) from hyperspectral observations of near‐infrared reflected sunlight over land and ocean surfaces from the Orbiting Carbon Observatory‐2 (OCO‐2). These measurements are an ancillary product of the retrieval algorithm used to measure atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations, with information coming from three highly resolved spectral bands. Comparisons to high‐accuracy validation data, including ground‐based GPS and microwave radiometer data, demonstrate that OCO‐2 TCWV measurements have maximum root‐mean‐square deviations of 0.9–1.3mm. Our results indicate that OCO‐2 is the first space‐based sensor to accurately and precisely measure the two most important greenhouse gases, water vapor and carbon dioxide, at high spatial resolution (1.3 × 2.3 km 2 ) and that OCO‐2 TCWV measurements may be useful in improving numerical weather predictions and reanalysis products.

the atmosphere, with the main gases having no effect, and was largely due to water vapor, though small percentages of hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide The history of the scientific discovery of climate change began in the early 19th century when ice ages and other natural changes in paleoclimate were first suspected and the natural greenhouse effect was first identified. In the late 19th century, scientists first argued that human emissions of greenhouse gases could change Earth's energy balance and climate. The existence of the greenhouse effec Before the concept of ice ages was proposed, Joseph Fourier in 1824 reasoned based on physics that Earth's atmosphere kept the planet warmer than would be the case in a vacuum. Fourier recognized that the atmosphere transmitted visible light waves efficiently to the earth's surface. The earth then absorbed visible light and emitted infrared radiation in response, but the atmosphere did not transmit infrared efficiently, which therefore increased surface temperatures. He also suspected that human activities could influence the radiation balance and Earth's climate, although he focused primarily on land-use changes. In an 1827 paper, Fourier stated,The establishment and progress of human societies, the action of natural forces, can notably change, and in vast regions, the state of the surface, the distribution of water and the great movements of the air. Such effects are able to make to vary, in the course of many centuries, the average degree of heat; because the analytic expressions contain coefficients relating to the state of the surface… By…

December 1996. Also issued as author's thesis (M.S.) -- Colorado State University, 1996. One scientific question that the ARM (Atmospheric Radiation Measurement) program hopes to answer is, "What are the direct effects of temperature and atmospheric constituents, primarily clouds, water vapor and aerosols on the radiative flow of energy through the atmosphere and across Earth's surface?" (ARM Science Team, 1996). The purpose of this project is to construct a detailed analysis of the clouds over the Central Great Plains (SGP) site and to study their effects on surface radiation. Using data from

Evapotranspirasi adalah penguapan air yang terjadi di seluruh permukaan bumi, termasuk permukaan tanaman, air dan tanah. Salah satu penyebab pemanasan global adalah efek rumah kaca dari karbon dioksida, gas metana, dan uap air. Pada fenomena rumah kaca, radiasi yang dipancarkan matahari sebagian dipantulkan, sinar panas infra merah ini terperangkap di troposfer tidak dapat melewati atmosfer sehingga suhu bumi menjadi lebih panas. Pengukuran evapotranspirasi melalui pengamatan langsung yang dilakukan di Indonesia hanya mengukur evapotranspirasi di titik tertentu. Teknologi pengindraan jauh dapat dimanfaatkan untuk mengukur evapotranspirasi secara luasan karena data yang diolah berupa citra satelit. Penelitian ini berfokus pada penerapan ETindex Estimation Algorithm untuk menghitung nilai indeks evapotranspirasi dan metode Penman-Monteith guna menghasilkan nilai evapotranspirasi potensial, dimana dua parameter tersebut digunakan untuk memperoleh nilai evapotranspirasi aktual. Selain citra satelit, digunakan juga data iklim yang diperoleh dari Stasiun Klimatologi Bogor sebagai data penunjang dan pembanding. Evapotranspirasi yang dibandingkan adalah berdasarkan luasan area (spasial) vegetasi secara keseluruhan, bukan evapotranspirasi per vegetasi. Rata-rata nilai evapotranspirasi aktual pada daerah dengan vegetasi tinggi diperoleh antara 2,5 mm/hari sampai dengan 5 mm/hari, pada daerah dengan vegetasi rendah antara 2,3 mm/hari sampai dengan 4,6 mm/hari, dan pada daerah tanpa vege

Water is an oxygen hydride consisting of an oxygen atom that is covalently bonded to two hydrogen atoms. It has a role as an amphiprotic solvent, a mouse metabolite, a Saccharomyces cerevisiae metabolite, a member of greenhouse gas, an Escherichia coli metabolite and a human metabolite. It is an oxygen hydride, a mononuclear parent hydride and an inorganic hydroxy compound. It is a conjugate base of an oxonium. It is a conjugate acid of a hydroxide.