Thermal infrared cameras sense the temperature information of sensed scenes. With the development of UASs (Unmanned Aircraft Systems), thermal infrared cameras can now be carried on a quadcopter UAV (Unmanned Aircraft Vehicle) to appropriately collect high-resolution thermal images for volcanic geothermal monitoring in a local area. Therefore, the quadcopter UAS used to acquire thermal images for volcanic geothermal monitoring has been developed in Taiwan as part of this study to overcome the difficult terrain with highly variable topography and extreme environmental conditions. An XM6 thermal infrared camera was employed in this thermal image collection system. The Trimble BD970 GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System) OEM (Original Equipment Manufacturer) board was also carried on the quadcopter UAV to gather dual-frequency GNSS observations in order to determine the flying trajectory data by using the Post-Processed Kinematic (PPK) technique; this will be used to establish the position and orientation of collected thermal images with less ground control points (GCPs). The digital surface model (DSM) and thermal orthoimages were then produced from collected thermal images. Tests conducted in the Hsiaoyukeng area of Taiwan's Yangmingshan National Park show that the difference between produced DSM and airborne LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) data are about 37% between -1 m and 1 m, and 66% between -2 m and 2 m in the area surrounded by GCPs. As the accuracy of thermal orthoimages is about 1.78 m, it is deemed sufficient for volcanic geothermal monitoring. In addition, the thermal orthoimages show some phenomena not only more globally than do the traditional methods for volcanic geothermal monitoring, but they also show that the developed system can be further employed in Taiwan in the future.

Abstract Poás Volcano is a complex stratovolcano in Costa Rica’s Central Mountain Range and hosts acidic volcanic lakes. This study uses Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAV) to monitor the physicochemical characteristics of the hyperacid crater lake. Sampling was conducted in January and May of 2024, using a DJI Matrice 600 Pro equipped with a water collection system. The results showed extremely low pH values (as low as −1.04), high temperatures (up to 64 °C), and high concentrations of sulfate (134 877 ppm) and chloride (88 434 ppm), highlighting the influence of volcanic activity on the chemical composition of the hyperacid lake water. Sampling was marked by a decrease in rainfall patterns during the dry season and a reduction in the lake’s water volume, indicating a high evaporation rate and the release of gases and ash. The SO4 2−/Cl− ratio was relatively constant, with no increase in activity and that meant that it was safe for tourism, based on the physicochemical characteristics of the hyperacid crater lake.

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