people between the years 1648–1649. As a result of the massacres, by the 18th century virtually no Jewish population remained in Cossack-governed Ukrainian The history of the Jews in Ukraine dates back over a thousand years; Jewish communities have existed in the modern territory of Ukraine from the time of the Kievan Rus' (late 9th to mid-13th century). Important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from Hasidism to Zionism, arose there. According to the World Jewish Congress, the Jewish community in Ukraine is Europe's fourth largest and the wo In 1648–1657 Ukrainian Cossack Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a Cossack and peasant rebellion, known as Khmelnytsky uprising, during which Jews were targeted for their role as managers of noble estates, which was seen as oppression of Orthodox population on behalf of Catholic Poles. It is estimated that at that time the Jewish population in Ukraine numbered 51,325. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by the rebels, and tens of thousands of Jews were killed or sold as slaves. Historians consider the massacres under Khmelnytsky to have been the bloodiest episode of anti-Jewish violence until the 20th century. A 1996 estimate reported that 15,000–30,000 Jews were killed or taken captive, and that 300 Jewish communities were destroyed. A 2014 estimate reduced the toll to 3,000–6,000 from 1648 to 1649; of these, 3,000–6,000 Jews were killed by Cossacks in Nemyriv in May 1648 and 1,500 in Tulczyn in July 1648. Among contemporary Jews the effect of Khmelnytsky Uprising was compared to the destruction of the First and Second Temples. As a result of the massacres, many Jews from Ukraine moved to western regions of Poland, or emigrated to German lands, Amsterdam and the Ottoman Empire. Saving themselves from persecution or murder, many Jews in Ukraine were forced to adopt Christianity. There are reports about Jews taking part in Cossack activities during times before Khmelnytskyi's rebellion, and according to Bernard D The history of the Jews in Ukraine dates back over a thousand years; Jewish communities have existed in the modern territory of Ukraine from the time of the Kievan Rus' (late 9th to mid-13th century). Important Jewish religious and cultural movements, from Hasidism to Zionism, arose there. According to the World Jewish Congress, the Jewish community in Ukraine is Europe's fourth largest and the world's 11th largest. The presence of Jews in Ukrainian territory is first mentioned in the 10th century. At times Jewish life in Ukrainian lands flourished, while at other times it faced persecution and antisemitic discrimination. In 1648–1657 Ukrainian Cossack Hetman Bohdan Khmelnytsky led a Cossack and peasant rebellion, known as Khmelnytsky uprising, during which Jews were targeted for their role as managers of noble estates, which was seen as oppression of Orthodox population on behalf of Catholic Poles. It is estimated that at that time the Jewish population in Ukraine numbered 51,325. Hundreds of Jewish communities were destroyed by the rebels, and tens of thousands of Jews were killed or sold as slaves. Historians consider the massacres under Khmelnytsky to have been the bloodiest episode of anti-Jewish violence until the 20th century. There are some Jewish names in Cossack registers of 1649, and evidence of others converting while under attack in 1648. Jewish converts to Christianity in the Cossack Hetmanate were able to receive equal rights with the Ukrainian majority, and As of 1738 only around 600 Jews were reported to live in the region, and Jewish traders were also present in Zaporozhia and Sloboda Ukraine. In Right-bank Ukraine the situation differed significantly, as the 1667 Treaty of Andrusovo restored the system which had existed there before the 1648 uprising. Jewish population in the Ukrainian territories under Polish rule grew significantly starting from the late 17th century, and by the second half of the 18th century Galicia housed over 30% of all Jews in the Commonwealth, with cities such as Dobromyl, Przemyśl and Drohobych having a Jewish majority. The Jewish population of Right-bank Ukraine greatly suffered during the Koliivshchyna uprising of 1768, especially in the Massacre of Uman, where haidamak rebels murdered up to 20,000 Jews, although modern sources tend to give the number of up to 2,000 victims, including Poles. Twentieth-century Jewish historian Simon Dubnow called the events at Uman "the second Ukrainian catastrophe". === Rise of Hasidism and internal struggles === The Cossack Uprising and following massacres left a deep and lasting impression on Jewish social and spiritual life and led to the rise in popularity of Jewish mysticism including Kabbalah. Those Jews who agreed to convert received equal rights with Christians, but the number of such people remained insignificant. Odesa became the home of a large Jewish community during the 19th century, and by 1897 Jews were estimated to account for some 37% of the population. The city also became known as a centre of publishing and education, with the first Jewish magazines in Russian (Rassvet, 1860) and Yiddish (Kol Mevasser, 1863) being published there. ==== Pogroms and persecutions ==== During 1821 anti-Jewish riots in Odesa after the death of the Greek Orthodox patriarch in Constantinople, 14 Jews were killed. A museum of Jewish culture was active in Odesa and a Jewish library operated in Kyiv. As part of korenization policies, compulsory education of Yiddish-speaking pupils was introduced. In 1924 there were 268 schools of this type with 42,000 pupils in Soviet Ukraine; by 1931 their number had grown to 1096, and they were attended by 94,800 pupils. Yiddish schools in the Soviet Union provided children with proficiency in Yiddish culture, but at the same time engaged in propaganda against Judaism: religious instruction was banned by Soviet legislation, and in 1923 Saturday was replaced with Sunday as the day off for Jewish pupils.