Running regularly is detrimental to long-term physical health
the verdict
REFUTED
the evidence says no
refutedsupported
the weight of evidence
0 sources for · 3 against
Peer-reviewed literature, including a comprehensive meta-analysis of millions of participants, establishes that regular running significantly reduces mortality risk and improves long-term physical health.
<h4>Background</h4>Several reviews have examined the health benefits of participation in specific sports, such as baseball, cricket, cross-country skiing, cycling, downhill skiing, football, golf, judo, rugby, running and swimming. However, new primary studies on the topic have recently been published, and the respective meta-analytic evidence needs to be updated.<h4>Objectives</h4>To systematically review, summarise and appraise evidence on physical health benefits of participation in different recreational sports.<h4>Methods</h4>Searches for journal articles were conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, SpoLit, SPORTDiscus, Sports Medicine & Education Index and Web of Science. We included longitudinal and intervention studies investigating physical health outcomes associated with participation in a given sport among generally healthy adults without disability.<h4>Results</h4>A total of 136 papers from 76 studies conducted among 2.6 million participants were included in the review. Our meta-analyses of available evidence found that: (1) cycling reduces the risk of coronary heart disease by 16% (pooled hazard ratio [HR] = 0.84; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.80, 0.89), all-cause mortality by 21% (HR = 0.79; 95% CI: 0.73, 0.84), cancer mortality by 10% (HR = 0.90; 95% CI: 0.85, 0.96) and cardiovascular mortality by 20% (HR = 0.80; 95% CI: 0.74, 0.86); (2) football has favourable effects on body composition, blood lipids, fasting blood glucose, blood pressure, cardiovascular function at rest, cardiorespiratory fitness and bone strength (p < 0.050); (3) handball has favourable effects on body composition and cardiorespiratory fitness (p < 0.050); (4) running reduces the risk of all-cause mortality by 23% (HR = 0.77; 95% CI: 0.70, 0.85), cancer mortality by 20% (HR = 0.80; 95% CI: 0.72, 0.89) and cardiovascular mortality by 27% (HR = 0.73; 95% CI: 0.57, 0.94) and improves body composition, cardiovascular function at rest and cardiorespiratory fitness (p < 0.010); and (5) s
pmc Sports Med Open Sports Med Open 3051 sportsmedo Sports Medicine - Open 2199-1170 2198-9761 Springer PMC11043276 PMC11043276.1 11043276 11043276 38658416 10.1186/s40798-024-00692-x 692 1 Systematic Review Health Benefits of Different Sports: a Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Longitudinal and Intervention Studies Including 2.6 Million Adult Participants Oja Pekka 1 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-3203-418X Memon Aamir Raoof 2 http://orcid.org/0000-0001-6125-7182 Titze Sylvia 3 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-4861-4066 Jurakic Danijel 4 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-8975-7565 Chen Si-Tong 2 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3542-8130 Shrestha Nipun 5 Em Sowannry 3 Matolic Tena 4 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-7209-9351 Vasankari Tommi 1 6 https://orcid.org/0000-0002-3681-9953 Heinonen Ari 7 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-6929-2844 Grgic Jozo 2 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5352-3698 Koski Pasi 8 https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9436-5681 Kokko Sami 7 Kelly Paul 9 http://orcid.org/0000-0002-5041-0601 Foster Charlie 10 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1719-6970 Podnar Hrvoje 4 http://orcid.org/0000-0003-2886-3556 Pedisic Zeljko zeljko.pedisic@vu.edu.au 2 1 grid.415179.f 0000 0001 0868 5401 UKK Institute for Health Promotion Research, Tampere, Finland 2 https://ror.org/04j757h98 grid.1019.9 0000 0001 0396 9544 Institute for Health and Sport, Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia 3 https://ror.org/01faaaf77 grid.5110.5 0000 0001 2153 9003 Institute of Human Movement Science, Sport and Health, University of Graz, Graz, Austria 4 https://ror.org/00mv6sv71 grid.4808.4 0000 0001 0657 4636 Faculty of Kinesiology, University of Zagreb, Zagreb, Croatia 5 https://ror.org/0384j8v12 grid.1013.3 0000 0004 1936 834X NHMRC Clinical Trials Centre, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia 6 https://ror.org/033003e23 grid.502801.e 0000 0001 2314 6254 Faculty of Medicine and Health Technology, Tampere University, Tampere, Finland 7 https://ror.org/05n3dz165 grid.9681.6 0000 0001 1013 7965 Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland 8 https://ror.org/05vghhr25 grid.1374.1
Background Several reviews have examined the health benefits of participation in specific sports, such as baseball, cricket, cross-country skiing, cycling, downhill skiing, football, golf, judo, rugby, running and swimming. However, new primary studies on the topic have recently been published, and the respective meta-analytic evidence needs to be updated. Objectives To systematically review, summarise and appraise evidence on physical health benefits of participation in different recreational sports. Methods Searches for journal articles were conducted in PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, SpoLit, SPORTDiscus, Sports Medicine & Education Index and Web of Science.
Conclusions A range of physical health benefits are associated with participation in recreational cycling, football, handball, running and swimming. More studies are needed to enable meta-analyses of health benefits of participation in other sports. PROSPERO registration number CRD42021234839. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s40798-024-00692-x. Key Points We found a reduced risk of all-cause mortality associated with cycling (–21%), running (–23%) and swimming (–24%).
Given that we conducted 68 meta-analyses of overall effects of sports participation, further dose–response analyses were beyond the scope of this review. Dose–response analyses of the associations between sports participation and health outcomes can be found in previous reviews that were focused on a single sport [ 18 , 163 , 172 ]. Fourth, we considered only physical health outcomes of sports participation. Specific sports may also have distinct associations with various economic, environmental, psychological and social outcomes. Finally, the certainty of evidence was assessed only for the associations of cycling, running and swimming participation with the risk of all-cause mortality.
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) continues to be the leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally, imposing a substantial burden on healthcare systems worldwide. Physical inactivity is a significant modifiable risk factor that contributes to the onset and progression of CVD. Current guidelines recommend regular aerobic and muscle-strengthening exercise, with even below-guideline volumes reducing mortality risk significantly. Notably, even physical activity levels below these recommendations can significantly reduce mortality risk, emphasizing the importance of any movement over a sedentary lifestyle. Exercise functions as both a preventive and therapeutic intervention, helping individuals with and without CVD, including those recovering from myocardial infarction or managing heart failure. At the molecular level, the IGF-1/PI3K/Akt signaling pathway plays a crucial role in exercise-induced cardiac protection by promoting balanced cardiac growth, enhancing contractility, and reducing fibrosis. Furthermore, increased endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS) activity improves vascular function, antioxidant enzymes mitigate oxidative stress, and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator 1-alpha (PGC-1<i>α</i>) stimulates mitochondrial biogenesis, while pro-inflammatory cytokines such as interleukin-6 (IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α) are downregulated. Large-scale cohort studies have proved that regular exercise can reduce all-cause and CVD mortality by 36%-56%. This magnitude of risk reduction rivals or exceeds that achieved by pharmacological interventions such as statins or antihypertensives, positioning physical activity as a foundational, cost-effective intervention for population-level cardiovascular disease prevention. However, excessive exercise may pose risks such as arrhythmias or myocardial strain, underscoring the need for personalized, balanced exercise programs. Future research should focus on defining best exercise prescri
Children and adolescents should engage in at least 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity daily to encourage cardiovascular development and overall health. For adults, the guidelines recommend taking part in at least 150 min of moderate-intensity aerobic activities, such as brisk walking or cycling, or 75 min of vigorous-intensity aerobic exercises, such as running or high-intensity interval training, each week ( 12 ). Moreover, muscle-strengthening exercises involving major muscle groups should be done on two or more days per week to facilitate musculoskeletal health and metabolic function ( 13 ).
In broad terms, physical activity encompasses any bodily movement generated by skeletal muscles that leads to energy expenditure, encompassing a range of domains from activities of daily living and occupational tasks to recreational activities and competitive sports ( 35 ). Physical fitness refers to health- or skill-related attributes that result from regular activity. Physical activity is a core factor in improving cardiovascular health, as it significantly impacts different physiological systems that help decrease the risk of CVD ( 36 ).
Consistent exercise improves cardiopulmonary fitness by enhancing the function of the heart, lungs, and vascular system, thereby promoting oxygen delivery and utilization throughout the body. Beyond hemodynamic improvements, exercise training exerts significant anti-inflammatory effects that contribute to long-term cardiovascular protection. Regular physical activity has been shown to reduce systemic levels of C-reactive protein (CRP), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), while increasing anti-inflammatory mediators (e.g., IL-10 and adiponectin) ( 37 ).
These holistic approaches are critical for promoting adherence and determining long-term enhancements in cardiovascular health ( 46 ). 3. The correlation between sports and cardiovascular health While sports are generally categorized as physical activities, they are often characterized by their competitive objectives and skills unique to each sport ( 46 ). They can integrate aerobic and anaerobic energy systems, impose unique biomechanical demands, and carry distinct injury and performance considerations. In study and practice, sport-specific activity is sometimes assessed separately from general exercise to capture differential impacts on cardiovascular and metabolic outcomes.
Positive impacts of sports and exercise training on cardiovascular disease Taking part regularly in sports and organizing physical activities can be vital in cardiovascular health, according to promoting different physiological and molecular factors that reduce the risk of CVD. Exercise regimens cause a decrease in traditional CVD risk factors, such as body mass index (BMI), blood pressure, and total cholesterol ( 52 ). A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials has reported that consistent moderate activities, such as walking, effectively lower BMI, systolic and diastolic blood pressure, and fasting glucose levels in adults ( 45 ).
Long-term endurance training induces physiological hypertrophy characterized by proportional increases in left ventricular (LV) wall thickness, typically 6–10 mm in athletes vs. 6–9 mm in healthy controls, and LV end-diastolic diameter
For example, endurance training, such as long-distance running and swimming, has been reported to convert pathological hypertrophic signals into physiological ones, activating protective molecular pathways, such as the insulin growth factor-1/phosphoinositide-3 kinase/protein kinase B (IGF-1/PI3K/Akt) pathway ( 57 ). Various sports can offer unique cardiovascular challenges that cause adaptations in the heart and health advantages for athletes ( 58 ). Endurance sports, such as long-distance running and cycling, elicit robust central and peripheral cardiovascular adaptations. Various sports offer distinct cardiovascular stimuli that shape specific adaptations.
exercise over the course of several months. People who regularly perform an aerobic exercise (e.g., running, jogging, brisk walking, swimming, and cycling) have
The neurobiological effects of physical exercise involve possible interrelated effects on brain structure, brain function, and cognition. Research in humans has demonstrated that consistent aerobic exercise (e.g., 30 minutes every day) may induce improvements in certain cognitive functions, neuroplasticity and behavioral plasticity; some of these long-term effects may include increased neuron gro
The neurobiological effects of physical exercise involve possible interrelated effects on brain structure, brain function, and cognition. Research in humans has demonstrated that consistent aerobic exercise (e.g., 30 minutes every day) may induce improvements in certain cognitive functions, neuroplasticity and behavioral plasticity; some of these long-term effects may include increased neuron growth, increased neurological activity (e.g., c-Fos and BDNF signaling), improved stress coping, enhanced cognitive control of behavior, improved declarative, spatial, and working memory, and structural and functional improvements in brain structures and pathways associated with cognitive control and memory. The effects of exercise on cognition may affect academic performance in children and college students, improve adult productivity, preserve cognitive function in old age, prevent or treat certain neurological disorders, and improve overall quality of life.
In healthy adults, aerobic exercise has been shown to induce transient effects on cognition after a single exercise session and persistent effects on cognition following consistent exercise over the course of several months. People who regularly perform an aerobic exercise (e.g., running, jogging, brisk walking, swimming, and cycling) have greater scores on neuropsychological function and performance tests that measure certain cognitive functions, such as attentional control, inhibitory control, cognitive flexibility, working memory updating and capacity, declarative memory, spatial memory, and information processing speed.
Aerobic exercise has both short and long term effects on mood and emotional states by promoting positive affect, inhibiting negative affect, and decreasing the biological response to acute psychological stress. Aerobic exercise may affect both self-esteem and overall well-being (including sleep patterns) with consistent, long term participation. Regular aerobic exercise may improve symptoms associated with central nervous system disorders and may be used as adjunct therapy for this disorders. There is some evidence of exercise treatment efficacy for major depressive disorder.
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