<h4>Background</h4>Early life is a critical period for the maturation of the gut microbiota, epithelial barriers, and immune system. Disruption of gut and skin barrier integrity during this window is increasingly recognized as a key mechanism contributing to the development of allergic diseases.<h4>Objective</h4>This review summarizes evidence on how infant dietary patterns and macronutrients influence epithelial barriers, microbiota development, and immune programming for allergy prevention.<h4>Methods</h4>A comprehensive search and analysis of current literature regarding macronutrients, including carbohydrates and fiber, proteins, and fats, dietary diversity, and Western-type dietary patterns, was conducted to explore their collective effects on epithelial barrier function, microbiota, and immune outcomes during pregnancy and early life. Particular attention was given to complementary feeding.<h4>Results</h4>Dietary composition significantly influences epithelial barrier integrity and immune development through direct nutritional effects and microbiota-mediated pathways. Dietary fibers and human milk oligosaccharides promote short-chain fatty acid production and microbial diversity, strengthening epithelial junctions, mucus secretion, and regulatory immune responses. Adequate protein intake supports epithelial renewal, while microbial metabolism of amino acids such as tryptophan and branched-chain fatty acids enhances barrier integrity and immune homeostasis. Dietary fats critically shape epithelial lipid composition, with balanced omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids supporting barrier resilience, whereas excess saturated and trans fats promote dysbiosis and inflammation. Furthermore, greater dietary diversity during pregnancy and infancy correlates with enhanced microbial maturation and reduced atopic risk. Conversely, Western-type diets rich in ultra-processed foods and additives disrupt epithelial barriers and promote pro-inflammatory immune programming with long-lasting consequences beyond infancy.<h4>Conclusions</h4>Optimizing maternal and early life nutrition through breastfeeding support, timely and diverse complementary feeding, adequate intake of fiber, high-quality proteins and fats, and avoidance of Western-type dietary patterns represents a promising strategy to support gut and skin barrier and to reduce the risk of allergic diseases across the lifespan.

Nutritional status during pregnancy can have a significant impact on infant and maternal health outcomes. To maintain maternal homeostasis and support fetal growth, adequate macronutrient and energy intake during pregnancy is essential. Therefore, this study sought to systematically review and meta-analyze macronutrient and energy intakes during pregnancy. A systematic review and meta-analysis was carried out based on the PRISMA (Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses) guidelines. The required data were collected from four databases including: Web of Sciences, ProQuest, Scopus, and PubMed, from 1 January 1980 to 30 May 2023, by using a combination of search terms (dietary pattern" OR "diet quality" OR "food habits" OR "nutrition surveys" OR "diet surveys" OR "food-frequency questionnaire" OR "diet record" OR "dietary recall") AND ( "pregnancy" OR "reproduction" OR "maternal health" OR "neonatal outcomes") among interventional and observational studies. Excel and STATA version 11 were used for data analysis. Among 7081 published articles, 54 studies were included in the review. Most of the 33 (61%) studies were cohort studies and a total of 135,566 pregnant women were included. The overall average of energy, carbohydrate, fat, and protein intake was 2036.10 kcal/day, 262.17 gr/day, 74.17 gr/day, and 78.21 gr/day, respectively. Also, energy intake during pregnancy was higher in American (2228.31 kcal/day, CI95%: 2135.06-2325.63) and Eastern Mediterranean regions (2226.70 kcal/day, CI95%: 2077.23-2386.92) than other regions (P < 0.001). Energy intake was higher in the third trimester than others (2115.64 kcal/day, CI95%: 1974.15-2267.27). Furthermore, based on the findings, there was a significant difference between energy intake in different World Health Organization (WHO) regions (P < 0.05). According to the results of meta-analysis, the average total energy was below than average total energy required during pregnancy. More efforts are needed to encourage women to adopt healthy eating habits during pregnancy to support healthy fetal and infant development.

Pumpkin seeds (<i>Cucurbita pepo</i>) are increasingly recognized as a functional food due to their rich composition of proteins, healthy lipids, dietary fiber, and essential micronutrients. They have traditionally been consumed for culinary and therapeutic purposes. This review highlights the chemical composition, bioactive compounds, health-promoting potential, and applications of pumpkin seeds in food systems. Pumpkin seeds provide high-quality proteins, unsaturated fatty acids, and minerals such as magnesium, zinc, iron, and potassium, supporting cardiovascular health, immune function, and gastrointestinal well-being. They also contain phytosterols, antioxidants (vitamin E, carotenoids), cucurbitacins, lignans, and tryptophan, which have been associated with cholesterol reduction, oxidative stress mitigation, anti-inflammatory effects, hormonal regulation, and neurochemical benefits in preclinical studies. From a food science perspective, pumpkin seeds are versatile, being incorporated into snacks, bakery products, salads, soups, functional foods, and dietary supplements. Pumpkin seed oil is valued for its favorable fatty acid profile and antioxidant content. Integration of pumpkin seeds into food formulations enhances both nutritional quality and functional properties. Continued research is warranted to explore their bioactivity, health effects in humans, and innovative applications in modern diets.

Management of superficial partial thickness burn wound requires pain management, dressings, topical ointments and culture guided antibiotics. Despite of all these maneuvers, good nutritional support in the form of both micronutrients and macronutrients particularly proteins are critical component of acute burn wound care. Early optimal nutrition administration in management of burn patients particularly involves proteins rich diet due to lot of oozing from large wound surface area, high catabolism of muscles and vast tissue repair. Protein enrichment of diet, for burn patients, can be achieved by adding albumin, which is easily available from many sources especially egg and plays vital role in burn wound healing. Albumin, synthesized by liver, is one the major proteins which has several important functions. Albumin, composed of essential amino acids, is primary serum binding protein required for transportation of various substances in blood circulation. Albumin administration is much easier through enteral route.

Health authorities increasingly recommend a more plant-based diet, rich in fruits, vegetables, pulses, whole grains and nuts, low in red meat and moderate in dairy, eggs, poultry and fish which will be beneficial for both health and the environment. A systematic review of observational and intervention studies published between 2000 and January 2020 was conducted to assess nutrient intake and status in adult populations consuming plant-based diets (mainly vegetarian and vegan) with that of meat-eaters. Mean intake of nutrients were calculated and benchmarked to dietary reference values. For micronutrient status, mean concentrations of biomarkers were calculated and compared across diet groups. A total of 141 studies were included, mostly from Europe, South/East Asia, and North America. Protein intake was lower in people following plant-based diets compared to meat-eaters, but well within recommended intake levels. While fiber, polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), folate, vitamin C, E and magnesium intake was higher, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake was lower in vegetarians and vegans as compared to meat-eaters. Intake and status of vitamin B12, vitamin D, iron, zinc, iodine, calcium and bone turnover markers were generally lower in plant-based dietary patterns compared to meat-eaters. Vegans had the lowest vitamin B12, calcium and iodine intake, and also lower iodine status and lower bone mineral density. Meat-eaters were at risk of inadequate intakes of fiber, PUFA, α-linolenic acid (ALA), folate, vitamin D, E, calcium and magnesium. There were nutrient inadequacies across all dietary patterns, including vegan, vegetarian and meat-based diets. As plant-based diets are generally better for health and the environment, public health strategies should facilitate the transition to a balanced diet with more diverse nutrient-dense plant foods through consumer education, food fortification and possibly supplementation.

Nutrition plays a fundamental role in maintaining human health and modulating disease risk across the life course. This narrative review synthesizes contemporary evidence on the clinical significance of macronutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins, and fats, and micronutrients, including vitamins and minerals, establishing nutritional balance as a central determinant of human health, disease susceptibility, and therapeutic efficacy. These nutrient categories function within an integrated metabolic network in which macronutrients provide energy and structural substrates, while micronutrients serve as essential cofactors and regulatory agents in enzymatic, hormonal, and cellular signalling processes. The synthesis demonstrates that nutritional imbalance, arising from either deficiency, such as iron-deficiency anaemia and vitamin D insufficiency, or excess, including high intakes of refined carbohydrates and saturated fats, constitutes a major contributor to global disease burden, particularly the phenomenon described as the double burden of malnutrition. In response to these challenges, the review highlights the role of evidence-based nutritional therapy, encompassing established dietary patterns such as the Mediterranean and Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diets, as well as the clinical implementation of medical nutrition therapy in chronic disease management. It further emphasizes a paradigmatic shift from population-level dietary recommendations toward precision nutrition, an emerging framework that integrates nutrigenomics, metabolomics, and gut microbiome profiling to inform personalized dietary interventions. By conceptualizing nutrition as a dynamic and interactive system, this review offers a comprehensive perspective that integrates biochemical mechanisms with individualized clinical care, positioning nutritional balance as a foundational component of contemporary preventive and therapeutic medicine.

It is well established that macronutrients and micronutrients modulate responses of muscle kinetics, fatigue and immunity to exercise, although nutritional information have been extremely variable in the sports field. Dietary protein has gained a particular interest in the past few decades with respect to its role in exercise performance and recovery. Amongst the distinct functions of proteins and amino acids in exercise, a superior role in promoting a positive muscle protein balance, characterized with increased muscle protein synthesis and attenuated muscle protein breakdown, was highlighted by numerous studies [1]. A special emphasis on resistance exercise was noted in the majority of these studies, because muscular anabolic responses and muscle damage have been described following high intensity resistance exercise to a greater extent than moderate intensity endurance training. As a means to maximize the anabolic effects of resistance training on skeletal muscles, muscular pool and circulating levels of amino acids should be always maintained. The ingestion of dietary protein and/or amino acids at adequate levels alongside resistance training has been proven to be an effective way to increase protein synthesis rates and consequently skeletal muscle hypertrophy over time. Although ingestion of essential and non-essential amino acids increases plasma amino acid concentrations up to 3 hours, the availability of essential amino acids is the primary promoter of muscle protein

requirement of energy in comparison to plants. The macronutrients essential to animal life are carbohydrates, amino acids, and fatty acids. All macronutrients except Nutrition is the biochemical and physiological process by which an organism uses food and water to support its life. The intake of these substances provides organisms with nutrients (divided into macro- and micro-) which can be metabolized to create energy and chemical structures; too much or too little of an essential nutrient can cause malnutrition. Nutritional science, the study of nutrition as Animals are heterotrophs that consume other organisms to obtain nutrients. Herbivores are animals that eat plants, carnivores are animals that eat other animals, and omnivores are animals that eat both plants and other animals. Many herbivores rely on bacterial fermentation to create digestible nutrients from indigestible plant cellulose, while obligate carnivores must eat animal meats to obtain certain vitamins or nutrients their bodies cannot otherwise synthesize. Animals generally have a higher requirement of energy in comparison to plants. The macronutrients essential to animal life are carbohydrates, amino acids, and fatty acids. All macronutrients except water are required by the body for energy, however, this is not their sole physiological function. The energy provided by macronutrients in food is measured in kilocalories, usually called Calories, where 1 Calorie is the amount of energy required to raise 1 kilogram of water by 1 degree Celsius. Carbohydrates are molecules that store significant amounts of energy. Animals digest and metabolize carbohydrates to obtain this energy. Carbohydrates are typically synthesized by plants during metabolism, and animals have to obtain most carbohydrates from nature, as they have only a limited ability to generate them. They include sugars, oligosaccharides, and polysaccharides. Glucose is the simplest form of carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are broken down to produce glucose and short-chain fatty acids, and they are the most abundant nutrients for herbivorous land animals. Carbohydrates contain 4 calories per gram. Lipids provide animals with fats and oils. They are not soluble in water, and they can store energy for an extended period of time. They can be obtained from many different plant and animal sources. Most dietary lipids are triglycerides, composed of glycerol and fatty acids. Phospholipids and sterols are found in smaller amounts. An animal's body will reduce the amount of fatty acids it produces as dietary fat intake increases, while it increases the amount of fatty acids it produces as carbohydrate intake increases. Fats contain 9 calories per gram. Protein consumed by animals is broken down to amino acids,…

<h4>Background</h4>Gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM) is a common pregnancy complication associated with markedly elevated risk of type-2 diabetes in later life. Pregnancy or pre-pregnancy diet is a likely risk factor for GDM, with macronutrients-including proteins, fats, carbohydrates, and alcohol-being the primary dietary components to influence risk. In this study, we have conducted a systematic review and meta-analyses of pregnancy or pre-pregnancy dietary macronutrient intakes, including by source and type, on GDM occurrence to better elucidate the role of maternal diet on GDM.<h4>Methods</h4>We ran an online search on 15 August 2025 in OVID Medline, EMBASE, and EBM Reviews, augmented with reference searching to identify prospective observational studies reporting pregnancy or pre-pregnancy dietary intakes and GDM incidence. Screening, data extraction, and risk of bias assessment using the Newcastle-Ottawa Scale were performed by at least two reviewers. Macronutrient exposures and GDM incidence were considered with random effects higher versus lower (HvL) and dose-response analyses. Certainty of evidence was then considered with GRADE to comment on maternal macronutrient intakes and GDM.<h4>Results</h4>From 3990 initial titles, we identified 25 prospective observational studies of 115,496 pregnant women reporting at least one macronutrient intake and GDM. There was moderate certainty evidence that animal-sourced protein (HvL: RR 1.62 (95% CI 1.20 to 2.18) I² 82%) and animal-sourced fat (HvL: RR 1.59 (95% CI 1.34 to 1.88) I² 0%) intakes were associated with higher GDM in a dose-response manner. Total protein (HvL: RR 1.63 (95% CI 1.22 to 2.18) I² 64%) and vegetable fat (HvL: RR 1.25 (95% CI 1.06 to 1.47) I² 0%) showed positive associations with outcome in HvL but without dose response, while dietary fiber (HvL: RR 0.65 (95% CI 0.44 to 0.96) I² 89%) was the only macronutrient to indicate a protective effect against GDM with higher intakes in a dose-response manner, with moderate certainty evidence.<h4>Conclusions</h4>This study is the first to consider maternal intake of all macronutrients, including by source and type, on GDM occurrence. Our findings are largely in line with healthy dietary advice for the general population (promoting high fiber and low animal-sourced fat intakes); however, higher protein intakes (both total and animal-sourced) may be a specific concern that is not currently considered in dietary guidance during pregnancy, requiring further research.<h4>Trial registration</h4>PROSPERO (CRD420251001515).

Mammals exhibit multiple adaptive mechanisms that sense and respond to fluctuations in dietary nutrients. Consumption of reduced total dietary protein or a protein diet that is deficient in 1 or more of the essential amino acids triggers wide-ranging changes in feeding behavior and gene expression. At the level of individual cells, dietary protein deficiency is manifested as amino acid (AA) deprivation, which activates the AA response (AAR). The AAR is composed of a collection of signal transduction pathways that terminate in specific transcriptional programs designed to catalyze adaptation to the nutrient stress or, ultimately, undergo apoptosis. Independently of the AAR, endoplasmic reticulum stress activates 3 signaling pathways, collectively referred to as the unfolded protein response. The transcription factor activating transcription factor 4 is one of the terminal transcriptional mediators for both the AAR and the unfolded protein response, leading to a significant degree of overlap with regard to the target genes for these stress pathways. Over the past 5 y, research has revealed that the basic leucine zipper superfamily of transcription factors plays the central role in the AAR. Formation of both homo- and heterodimers among the activating transcription factor, CCAAT enhancer-binding protein, and FOS/JUN families of basic leucine zipper proteins forms the nucleus of a highly integrated transcription factor network that determines the initiation, magnitude, and duration of the cellular response to dietary protein or AA limitation.