Abstract Bedtime procrastination (BP) has been identified as a significant factor contributing to poor sleep health. While previous studies have examined its behavioral and psychological correlates, its functional role in individuals with clinical insomnia remains unclear. This study aims to investigate the primary functions of BP in individuals with insomnia and examine its relationship with smartphone use. A total of 80 young adults (mean age 22.3 ± 2.4 years, 80% female) with clinical insomnia participated in the study. BP, insomnia severity, and emotion regulation were assessed using self-report questionnaires. Additionally, sleep patterns were monitored using a daily sleep diary and actigraphy. A structured interview using functional analysis was conducted to analyze the individual functions of BP, classifying responses into seven categories based on antecedents, behaviors, and consequences. Participants spent an average of 95.9 (SD = 38.3) minutes per day using their smartphones in the 3 h before bedtime. Most participants used their phones every day during this window (78.8%). The most common functions of BP were emotion regulation (49.3%), reward (14.3%), and sleep induction (10.7%). In addition, adaptive emotion regulation strategies significantly moderated the relationship between BP and smartphone use in the 3 h before bedtime (β = 0.34, 95% CI = [0.02–0.23]). Our findings suggest that for individuals with clinical insomnia, BP, which is largely driven by smartphone use, can serve as a tool for emotion regulation. Interventions targeting BP should incorporate strategies considering individual functions of BP, rather than merely restricting media use. 4422 sleepadv Sleep Advances: A Journal of the Sleep Research Society Sleep Adv Oxford University Press PMC13025074 13025074 13025074 41909078 10.1093/sleepadvances/zpag019 Functional analysis of bedtime procrastination in individuals with clinical insomnia: a behavior for digital emotional regulation? Keywords: insomnia, bedtime procrastination, digital emotion regulation status released display-pdf yes is-olf no is-manuscript no is-preprint no is-journal-matter no is-scanned no is-retracted no Received 2025 Oct 2; Revised 2026 Jan 11; Accepted 2026 Feb 2; Collection date 2026. Statement of Significance This study explored functions of bedtime procrastination (BP) among individuals with insomnia, identifying emotional regulation, reward for oneself, and sleep induction as the main functions. Other studies have reported that up to 90.6 per cent of adolescents use their smartphones in bed, with BP mediating the relationship between problematic smartphone use and sleep quality (SQ) [ 6 ]. These findings are supported by a recent meta-analysis confirming that using digital devices were consistently associated with BP, delayed sleep onset, and shorter overall sleep duration [ 7 ]. While these studies establish a clear behavioral link, the tendency to engage in BP via digital devices may depend on an individual’s emotional regulation style [ 8 , 9 ]. Among the total frequency of responses, the most common functions of BP were emotional regulation (49.3%), reward (14.3%), and sleep induction (10.7%; see Figure 2 ). Figure 2 Function of bedtime procrastination ( N = 80). Correlation analysis between BP and emotion regulation BPS scores were positively correlated with the Smartphone Addiction Scale (SAS) scores ( r = .45, p < .001) and ISI scores ( r = .28, p < .05; Table 2 ). BPD measured by sleep diaries was positively correlated with average smartphone use 3 h before BT ( r = .57, p < .001) and ISI ( r = .25, p < .05). Increasing use of digital technologies, including smartphones, social media, and streaming services, has significantly altered BT behaviors, consistent with previous research suggesting that digital media use significantly contributes to increased BP [ 18 , 37 ]. This influence extends beyond simply curtailing TST, as digital media actively delays sleep onset by reinforcing engagement and interfering with sleep initiation. BP may not be merely a byproduct of digital media consumption; rather, digital emotional regulation may mediate this relationship. Individuals may attempt to select or modify situations to avoid emotional discomfort (situation selection/modification), divert attention from distressing thoughts (attention placement), or downregulate emotional responses (response regulation) by delaying BT and engaging with digital content. This may especially apply to insomnia patients who find attempting to sleep as aversive or frustrating. Thus, BP in this population may function as a strategic component of a multi-stage DER process, aimed at facilitating sleep by promoting de-arousal before BT. The findings suggest that BP in individuals with insomnia is primarily driven by emotion regulation, followed by compensation and attempts to facilitate sleep onset. These results indicate that individuals with insomnia may use BP as a coping mechanism to manage emotional distress and sleep difficulties. Additionally, smartphone use before BT was significantly correlated with BP, reinforcing previous findings that digital media consumption contributes to BP. Notably, individuals with higher levels of adaptive emotion regulation strategies also spend more time on their smartphone when engaging in more BP. This suggests that individuals with insomnia who use adaptive emotion regulation strategies may utilize their smartphones for DER to facilitate sleep induction. In clinical populations with insomnia, BP may be a functional strategy for digital emotional regulation. Considering these findings, interventions for BP for insomnia patients should consider the individual functions of BP rather than merely restricting digital media use. Traditional CBT-I may need to be adapted to reflect the role of digital devices in sleep-related behaviors.

More than often, there are instances when there is a gap between our intentions to do something and actually doing something, this gap is what we refer to as procrastination. This in turn induces an imbalance in our emotional equilibrium. By a lot of research academic procrastination has been associated with numerous factors such as low motivation, self- esteem issues, perception of a task as difficult etc. The present research aims to study the relation between academic procrastination and cognitive emotional regulation in young adults. A sample of 40 students, aged 18-25 was taken and standardized tools were used. The results found out that there is a significant negative correlation between procrastination and cognitive emotional regulation. Further it was suggested that division of tasks in a proper manner should be implemented so as to prevent emotional overload. Positive and realistic affirmations could also be very effective in regulating the feelings. Lastly, Cognitive Behaviour therapy (CBT) is also one of the strongest interventions that could be employed. A sample of 40 students, aged 18 -25 was taken and standardized tools were used. The results found out that there is a significant negative correlation between procrastination and cognitive emotional regulation. Further it was suggested that division of tasks in a proper manner should be implemented so as to prevent emotional overload. Positive and realistic affirmations could also be very effective in regulating the feelings. Lastly, Cognitive Behaviour therapy (CBT) is also one of the strongest interventions that could be employed. Standardized psychological tests were administered to the test subjects. Academic Procrastination and Cognitive Emotional Regulation among Young Adults © The International Journal of Indian Psychology, ISSN 2348-5396 (e)| ISSN: 2349-3429 (p) | 1394 Analysis of Data The responses of participants were analyzed using Pearson product -moment correlation to study academic procrastination and cognitive emo tional regulation among a sample of young adults. The Mean and Standard deviation data are presented in table 1, table 2 shows the correlation between analyses of procrastination and cognitive emotional regulation. RESULTS Table 1: N, Mean and SD of Variables procrastination cognitive emotional regulation N 40 40 Mean 16.1 111 Standard deviation 4.81 13.6 Table 2: shows the correlation between procrastination and cognitive emotional regulation procrastination cognitive A similar study was conducted by Bytamar (2020) which aimed at identifying the role of difficulty in emotional regulation in academic procrastination. The results found out that people who were found to be procrastinators also reported a high level of difficulty in regulating their emotions. Another study conducted by Jobaneh et al (2016) on 335 students aimed at investigating the relationship between mindfulness and emotional regulation with procrastination of students. According to the results, there was a significant negative correlation between procrastination with emotional regulation and mindfulness. Eckert et al. After analysis, a significant negative correlation was found between academic procrastination and cognitive emotional regulation. Academic Procrastination and Cognitive Emotional Regulation among Young Adults © The International Journal of Indian Psychology, ISSN 2348-5396 (e)| ISSN: 2349-3429 (p) | 1395 The findings of this study highlight some implications for clinical and academic practice that may be helpful. For instance, one of the therapeutic objectives in procrastination therapies and academic consultations can be individuals' assessments of their capa city to properly regulate their emotions. There is significant evidence that emotional self -regulation reduces procrastination ( Blunt & Pychyl, 1998 ). It was shown that interventions which induct positive moods ( Tice, Baumeister, Shmueli, & Muraven, 2007 ) or interventions of self - affirmation (Schmeichel & Vohs, 2009) enhance self-regulation capacity, which is needed to overcome procrastination. Workshops that shed light on triggers of procrastination should be arranged for the students so that they’re able to gain some insights upon their own behavioral patterns and work through them. Procrastination in students can be reduced by minimizing and learning to manage anxiety, correcting self-sabotaging and toxic coping strategies and building upon adaptive cognitive emotional regulation strategies. When a student is engul fed by academic procrastination it becomes vital to take a step back and work through it in a calm logical manner, breaking a task into pieces; if overwhelmed, putting your mind to some other thing; avoid judging yourself over failing or not being able to do something as well as you thought you would have; keeping a healthy and constructive view. Procrastination in college students: The role of self‐efficacy and anxiety. Journal of counseling & development, 76(3), 317-324. Mahdion, H., & Kiani, Q. (20 17). The relationship between cognitive -emotional regulation and study skills with academic procrastination in students of the faculty of health and paramedicine, Zanjan University of Medical Sciences. Journal of Medical Education , 10(26,123-134). Academic Procrastination and Cognitive Emotional Regulation among Young Adults © The International Journal of Indian Psychology, ISSN 2348-5396 (e)| ISSN: 2349-3429 (p) | 1396 Mohammadi Bytamar, J., Saed, O., & Khakpoor, S. (2020). Psychological Reports, 42(1), 59–69 Acknowledgement The author(s) appreciates all those who participated in the study and helped to facilitate the research process. Conflict of Interest The author(s) declared no conflict of interest. How to cite this article: Kanwar, C. (2023). Academic Procrastination and Cognitive Emotional Regulation among Young Adults . International Journal of Indian Psychology , 11(1), 1391-1396. DIP:18.01.141.20231101, DOI:10.25215/1101.141

reinforcement is related to avoidance-related behaviors such as procrastination, and to other clinical diagnoses such as anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity Delayed gratification, or deferred gratification, is the ability to resist the temptation of an immediate reward in favor of a more valuable and long-lasting reward later. It involves forgoing a smaller, immediate pleasure to achieve a larger or more enduring benefit in the future. A growing body of literature has linked the ability to delay gratification to a host of other positive outcomes, incl Delayed gratification, or deferred gratification, is the ability to resist the temptation of an immediate reward in favor of a more valuable and long-lasting reward later. It involves forgoing a smaller, immediate pleasure to achieve a larger or more enduring benefit in the future. A growing body of literature has linked the ability to delay gratification to a host of other positive outcomes, including academic success, physical health, psychological health, and social competence. A person's ability to delay gratification relates to other similar skills such as patience, impulse control, self-control and willpower, all of which are involved in self-regulation. Broadly, self-regulation encompasses a person's capacity to adapt the self as necessary to meet demands of the environment. Delaying gratification is the reverse of delay discounting, which is "the preference for smaller immediate rewards over larger but delayed rewards" and refers to the "fact that the subjective value of reward decreases with increasing delay to its receipt". It is theorized that the ability to choose delayed rewards is under the control of the cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS). Several factors can affect a person's ability to delay gratification. Cognitive strategies, such as the use of distracting or "cool" thoughts, can increase delay ability, as can neurological factors, such as strength of connections in the frontal-stri Broadly, self-regulation encompasses a person's capacity to adapt the self as necessary to meet demands of the environment. Delaying gratification is the reverse of delay discounting, which is "the preference for smaller immediate rewards over larger but delayed rewards" and refers to the "fact that the subjective value of reward decreases with increasing delay to its receipt". It is theorized that the ability to choose delayed rewards is under the control of the cognitive-affective personality system (CAPS). Several factors can affect a person's ability to delay gratification. The inability to choose to wait rather than seek immediate reinforcement is related to avoidance-related behaviors such as procrastination, and to other clinical diagnoses such as anxiety, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and depression. Sigmund Freud, the founder of psychoanalytic theory, discussed the ego's role in balancing the immediate pleasure-driven desires of the id with the morality-driven choices of the superego. Funder and Block expanded psychoanalytic research on the topic, and found that impulsivity, or a lack of ego-control, has a stronger effect on one's ability to choose delayed rewards if a reward is more desirable. Those who had been high delayers as pre-schoolers were more successful at controlling their impulses in response to the emotional faces (i.e., not pressing the button in response to happy faces), suggesting that the high delayers continued to show better ability to dampen or resist impulses. Casey and colleagues also scanned the brains of 26 participants using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) as they completed the task. Declines in self-regulation and impulse control in old age predict corresponding declines in reward-delaying strategies, specifically reduced temporal discounting due to a For maladaptive coping behaviors such as self-injury, substance use or avoidance, there are generally no long-term pros. Meanwhile, abstinence from acting on a harmful urge (i.e., delayed gratification) generally results in long-term benefits. This realization can be a powerful impetus for change. ===== Externalizing disorders ===== Externalizing disorders (i.e., acting-out disorders) show a clearer link to delayed gratification, since they more directly involve deficits in impulse control. Procrastination, which is often a reflection of anxiety, is a clear example: a person avoids a dreaded task by engaging in a more enjoyable immediate activity instead. Obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) is a more jarring case of this anxiety-related struggle to delay gratification; someone with OCD may be unable to resist compulsions that temporarily mitigate the torture of obsessive thoughts, even though these compulsions do not banish the obsessions in the long run. cut themselves) are less able to tolerate emotional distress but are more able to tolerate physical pain. Thus it is argued that they injure themselves because they cannot delay gratification and need a way to end emotional pain quickly. ==== Psychoanalytic drives and impulses ==== Sigmund Freud viewed the struggle to delay gratification as a person's efforts to overcome the instinctive, libidinal drive of the id. According to classic psychoanalytic theory, a person's psyche is composed of the id, ego and superego. The id is driven by the pleasure principle: it wants physical pleasure, and it wants it now. A greater capacity to delay gratification by using effective attentional strategies is also seen in preschoolers whose mothers had been responsive and supportive during particularly stressful times of self-regulation when the child was a toddler, indicating that maternal responsiveness during highly demanding times is crucial for the development of self-regulation, self-control and emotional competency. ==== Reliability of gratification ==== Researchers have investigated whether the reliability of the reward affects one's ability to delay gratification.

<h4>Introduction</h4>The widespread recognition of the link between procrastination and negative emotions is accompanied by a need for greater clarity regarding the underlying mechanisms of this connection. This study aims to systematically review and meta-analyze the association between procrastination and negative emotions, specifically focusing on depression, anxiety, and stress.<h4>Methods</h4>Through comprehensive searches across five databases, we have included a total of 88 studies, encompassing 63,323 participants across 17 countries. Utilizing Stata 18.0, we conducted separate meta-analyses for each of the three negative emotions.<h4>Results</h4>The results indicate a moderate positive correlation between procrastination and negative emotions, with a combined effect size of r=0.342. Subgroup analyses reveal variations in the strength of this association across different types of procrastination. Furthermore, the results of the publication bias test indicate no significant bias.<h4>Discussion</h4>By unveiling the close connection between procrastination and negative emotions, and preliminarily exploring the bidirectional relationship between procrastination and negative emotions based on the included longitudinal studies, this study has reinforced the theoretical foundation of this field. Policymakers should consider the association with procrastination behaviors when aiming to improve people's mental health and well-being. <b>Systematic Review Registration:</b> PROSPERO (CRD420251041427).