specific profession. There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), awarded in many different fields, ranging A doctorate (from Latin doctor, meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach"). In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession. There are a nu Many fields offer professional doctorates (or professional master's degrees) for fields such as engineering, pharmacy, and medicine that require such degrees for professional practice or licensure. Some of these degrees are also termed "first professional degrees", since they are the first field-specific master's or doctoral degrees. A Doctor of Engineering (DEng) is a professional oriented research degree considered equivalent to a PhD. However a PhD in Engineering includes original theory-based research while DEng degrees focus on applied research solutions. DEng students defend their dissertation or praxis at the end of their study before a committee in order to be conferred a degree. A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the professional degree in pharmacy replacing a bachelor's degree. It is the only professional pharmacy degree awarded in the US. Pharmacy programs vary in length between four years for matriculants with a B.S./B.A. to six years for others. In the twenty-first century professional doctorates appeared in other fields, such as the Doctor of Audiology in 2007. Advanced Practice Registered Nurses were expected to completely transition to the Doctor of Nursing Practice by 2015, and physical therapists to the Doctor of Physical Therapy by 2020. Professional associations play a central role in this transformation amid criticisms on the lack of proper criteria to assure appropriate rigor. In many cases master' A doctorate (from Latin doctor, meaning "teacher") or doctoral degree is a postgraduate academic degree awarded by universities and some other educational institutions, derived from the ancient formalism licentia docendi ("licence to teach"). In most countries, a research degree qualifies the holder to teach at university level in the degree's field or work in a specific profession. There are a number of doctoral degrees; the most common is the Doctor of Philosophy (PhD), awarded in many different fields, ranging from the humanities to scientific disciplines. Certain doctoral programs employ alternative assessment models, in which the degree is awarded based on coursework, examinations, or peer-reviewed publications rather than a single monographic dissertation. The submitted dissertation is assessed by a committee of, typically, internal, and external examiners. It is then typically defended by the candidate during an oral examination (called viva (voce) in the UK and India) by the committee, which then awards the degree unconditionally, awards the degree conditionally (ranging from corrections in grammar to additional research), or denies the degree. Some universities do not award honorary degrees; for example, Cornell University, the University of Virginia, and Massachusetts Institute of Technology. == National variations == === Argentina === In Argentina the doctorate (doctorado) is the highest academic degree. The intention is that candidates produce original contributions in their field knowledge within a frame of academic excellence. A dissertation or thesis is prepared under the supervision of a tutor or director. It is reviewed by a Doctoral Committee composed of examiners external to the program and at least one examiner external to the institution. The degree is conferred after a successful dissertation defence. The dissertation can either be a monograph or it an edited collection of 3 to 7 journal articles. Students unable or unwilling to write a dissertation may qualify for a licentiate degree by completing the coursework requirement and writing a shorter thesis, usually summarizing one year of research. When the dissertation is ready, the faculty names two expert pre-examiners with doctoral degrees from the outside the university. During the pre-examination process, the student may receive comments on the work and respond with modifications. After the pre-examiners approve, the doctoral candidate applies the faculty for permission to print the thesis. After formal approval of the thesis and the defence by the examining committee in a closed discussion, the session is resumed and the promotor grants the degree and hands over the diploma to the candidate, and usually congratulates the candidate and gives a personal speech praising the work of the young doctor (laudatio), before the session is formally closed. Dutch doctors may use PhD behind their name or the uncapitalized dr. before their name. Those who obtained a degree in a foreign country can only use the Dutch title dr. educational system, lasting into the 1950s, as it was seen as an unnecessary artificial transplant from the German educational system, which corrupted a system based on England's Oxbridge model. Ph.D.s and other research doctorates in the U.S. typically entail successful completion of coursework, passing a comprehensive examination, and defending a dissertation. The median number of years for completion of U.S. doctoral DEng students defend their dissertation or praxis at the end of their study before a committee in order to be conferred a degree. A Doctor of Pharmacy is awarded as the professional degree in pharmacy replacing a bachelor's degree. It is the only professional pharmacy degree awarded in the US. Pharmacy programs vary in length between four years for matriculants with a B.S./B.A. to six years for others. In the twenty-first century professional doctorates appeared in other fields, such as the Doctor of Audiology in 2007.

For the doctorate in law, a thesis and two oral examinations are required. In the faculty of medicine there is no licentiateship, but for the doctorate six examinations must be passed and a thesis submitted. There is also a special doctorate, the “doctorat d’Université,” awarded on a thesis and an oral examination; and there are diplomas (Diplômes d’Études supérieures) awarded on dissertations and examinations on subjects in philosophy, history and geography, classics or modern languages, selected mainly by the candidate and approved by the faculty. 2. Professional Examinations. (a) Teaching.—University examinations for degrees having ceased to be used as technical tests of teaching capacity, new examinations have been devised for this purpose. The test for German university teachers has been described above. For secondary teachers, W. von Humboldt instituted a special examination in 1810 (Paulsen, Gesch. des gelehrten Unterrichts, ii. pp. 283 and 393), and an examination for primary teachers was instituted in Prussia in 1794. In France there is a competitive examination for secondary teachers, the agrégation, originally established in 1766.