Launch vehicle A launch vehicle or carrier rocket is a rocket used to take a payload from Earth's surface through outer space. This can be to another place on earth (Sub-orbital transportation), or into space. Sub-orbital vehicles aren't as powerful as orbital vehicles must be. They use more than one stage so that they have enough delta-v performance. Many different rocket fuels can be used, and some rockets have solid rocket boosters attached. Most launch vehicles are expendable, which means that they can only be used once. This means that lots of expensive equipment is lost, but it also means that the launch vehicle can carry a heavier payload.[1] SpaceX has developed a partly reusable rocket, called the Falcon 9. It is also developing a fully reusable rocket called Starship. The first stage of this rocket can land and be relaunched.[2] Parts of the Space Shuttle were also reusable.[3] There are many different types of launch vehicle. The vehicle that is used depends on the spaceport, the mass of the payload, and the orbit that the payload is being launched to. A launch vehicle is typically a rocket-powered vehicle designed to carry a payload (a crewed spacecraft or satellites) from Earth's surface or lower atmosphere to outer space. The most common form is the ballistic missile-shaped multistage rocket, but the term is more general and also encompasses vehicles like the Space Shuttle. Most launch vehicles operate from a launch pad, supported by a launch control center and systems such as vehicle assembly and fueling. Launch vehicles are engineered with advanced aerodynamics and technologies, which contribute to high operating costs. An orbital launch vehicle must lift its payload at least to the boundary of space, approximately 150 km (93 mi) and accelerate it to a horizontal velocity of at least 7,814 m/s (17,480 mph). Suborbital vehicles launch their payloads to lower velocity or are launched at elevation angles greater than horizontal. Practical orbital launch vehicles use chemical propellants such as solid fuel, liquid hydrogen, kerosene, liquid oxygen, or hypergolic propellants. Launch vehicles are classified by their orbital payload capacity, ranging from small-, medium-, heavy- to super-heavy lift. Launch vehicles are classed by NASA according to low Earth orbit payload capability: Small-lift launch vehicle: < 2,000 kilograms (4,400 lb) – e.g. Vega Medium-lift launch vehicle: 2,000 to 20,000 kilograms (4,400 to 44,100 lb) – e.g. Soyuz ST Heavy-lift launch vehicle: 20,000 to 50,000 kilograms (44,000 to 110,000 lb) – e.g. Ariane 5 Super-heavy lift vehicle: > 50,000 kilograms (110,000 lb) – e.g. Saturn V Sounding rockets are similar to small-lift launch vehicles, however they are usually even smaller and do not place payloads into orbit. A modified SS-520 sounding rocket was used to place a 4-kilogram payload (TRICOM-1R) into orbit in 2018. Orbital spaceflight requires a satellite or spacecraft payload to be accelerated to high velocity. In the vacuum of space, reaction forces must be provided by the ejection of mass, resulting in the rocket equation. The physics of spaceflight are such that rocket stages are typically required to achieve the desired orbit. Expendable launch vehicles are designed for one-time use, with boosters that usually separate from their payload and disintegrate during atmospheric reentry or on contact with the ground. In contrast, reusable launch vehicles are designed to be recovered intact and launched again. The SpaceX Falcon 9 is an example of a reusable launch vehicle. As of 2023, all reusable launch vehicles that were ever operational have been partially reusable, meaning some components are recovered and others are not. This usually means the recovery of specific stages, usually just the first stage, but sometimes specific components of a rocket stage may be recovered while others are not. The Space Shuttle, for example, recovered and reused its solid rocket boosters, the Space Shuttle orbiter that also acted as a second stage, and the engines used by the core stage (the RS-25, which was located at the back of the orbiter), however the fuel tank that the engines sourced fuel from, which was separate from the engines, was not reused. For example, the European Space Agency is responsible for the Ariane V, and the United Launch Alliance manufactures and launches the Delta IV and Atlas V rockets. Launchpads can be located on land (spaceport), on a fixed ocean platform (San Marco), on a mobile ocean platform (Sea Launch), and on a submarine. Launch vehicles can also be launched from the air. A launch vehicle will start off with its payload at some location on the surface of the Earth. To reach orbit, the vehicle must travel vertically to leave the atmosphere and horizontally to prevent re-contacting the ground. The required velocity varies depending on the orbit but will always be extreme when compared to velocities encountered in normal life. Launch vehicles provide varying degrees of performance. For example, a satellite bound for Geostationary orbit can either be directly inserted by the upper stage of the launch vehicle or launched to a geostationary transfer orbit (GTO). A direct insertion places greater demands on the launch vehicle, while GTO is more demanding of the spacecraft. Once in orbit, launch vehicle upper stages and satellites can have overlapping capabilities, although upper stages tend to have orbital lifetimes measured in hours or days while spacecraft can last decades. Air launch to orbit Comparison of orbital launch systems Comparison of retired orbital launch vehicles Launch vehicle system tests List of canceled launch vehicle designs List of human spaceflights List of orbital launch systems NewSpace Nuclear thermal rocket Rocket launch Reusable launch vehicle Space exploration Space logistics Space vehicle launch preparation Timeline of spaceflight Transporter erector

This thesis describes and evaluates the design of nanospacecraft based on advanced multifunctional microsystems building blocks. These systems bring substantial improvements of the performance of nanosatellites and enable new space exploration, e.g. interplanetary science missions using minute space probes. Microsystems, or microelectromechanical systems, allows for extreme miniaturization using heritage from IC industry. Reducing mass and volume of spacecraft gives large savings in terms of launch costs. Definition and categorization of system and module level features in multifunctional micr