New observations of the aureole deposits of Olympus Mons are in agreement with previous suggestions that the aureole lobes could have been formed by movement under gravity away from the observed scarps. The characteristic corrugated morphology of the aureole is probably secondary, formed by erosion along structural inhomogeneities. Geometries of the corrugations and translational faults in the aureole deposits favor a mechanism of emplacement that involves material with substantial shear strength rather than viscous flow. Estimates of the aspect ratios of terrestrial landslides, nappes, and ash flows suggest that the aureole deposits are more similar in overall shape to slide‐emplaced bodies than to pyroclastic flows. Although Martian physical conditions permit the formation of ash flows, there is no positive evidence for their existence. A gravitational spreading mechanism is proposed that involves imbricate thrusting in distal regions, analogous with terrestrial thrust sheets. Corrugations in the aureole developed by erosion along imbricate or listric faults. Basal shear stresses on the decoupling surface may have been of the order of 10 6 Pa (10 bars). The nature of the decoupling surfaces in the proximal regions is uncertain but is likely to have been the topographic surface in distal parts. The aureole deposits were probably emplaced as a series of sheets by spreading under gravity from an ancestral Olympus Mons, which extended farther to the northwest than does the present volcano, as a result of the accumulation of lavas under the then prevailing stress conditions. Recent lava eruptions from the volcano have been concentrated in northeast and southwest sectors, indicating a changed stress regime since aureole emplacement.

The large-area coverage at a resolution of 10-20 metres per pixel in colour and three dimensions with the High Resolution Stereo Camera Experiment on the European Space Agency Mars Express Mission has made it possible to study the time-stratigraphic relationships of volcanic and glacial structures in unprecedented detail and give insight into the geological evolution of Mars. Here we show that calderas on five major volcanoes on Mars have undergone repeated activation and resurfacing during the last 20 per cent of martian history, with phases of activity as young as two million years, suggesting that the volcanoes are potentially still active today. Glacial deposits at the base of the Olympus Mons escarpment show evidence for repeated phases of activity as recently as about four million years ago. Morphological evidence is found that snow and ice deposition on the Olympus construct at elevations of more than 7,000 metres led to episodes of glacial activity at this height. Even now, water ice protected by an insulating layer of dust may be present at high altitudes on Olympus Mons. Recent and episodic volcanic and glacial activity on Mars revealed by the High Resolution Stereo Camera | Nature Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Glacial deposits at the base of the Olympus Mons escarpment show evidence for repeated phases of activity as recently as about four million years ago. Morphological evidence is found that snow and ice deposition on the Olympus construct at elevations of more than 7,000 metres led to episodes of glacial activity at this height. Even now, water ice protected by an insulating layer of dust may be present at high altitudes on Olympus Mons. This is a preview of subscription content, access via your institution Access options Access through your institution Subscribe to this journal Receive 52 print issues and online access 185,98 € per year only 3,58 € per issue Learn more Buy this article Purchase on SpringerLink Instant access to the full article PDF. 39,95 € Prices may be subject to local taxes which are calculated during checkout Figure 1: Investigated volcanic calderas. Figure 2: Hecates Tholus counting-area. Figure 3: Olympus Mons western scarp areas. Figure 4: Ice–dust deposits and glaciers on Olympus Mons. Figure 5: Base map (panels a – e ) and crater statistics (four panels at bottom) of the areas on the northwestern part of Olympus Mons investigated for possible ice–dust coverage and age relationships. Similar content being viewed by others Evidence for transient morning water frost deposits on the Tharsis volcanoes of Mars Article Open access 10 June 2024 Strategic exploration of Elysium Mons Cave Zone on Mars: implications for AI-driven robotic dogs Article Open access 12 June 2026 Diverse volcanism and crustal recycling on early Mars Article Open access 12 February 2024 References Neukum, G., Jaumann, R. & the HRSC Co-Investigator and Experiment Team. HRSC—The High Resolution Stereo Camera of Mars Express 17–35 (European Space Agency Special Publication ESA SP-1240, 2004) Google Scholar Malin, M. C. & Edgett, K. S. Mars Global Surveyor Mars Orbiter Camera: Interplanetary cruise through primary mission. J. Geophys. Res. 106 , 23429–23570 (2001) Article ADS Google Scholar Neukum, G., Ivanov, B. A. & Hartmann, W. K. Cratering record in the inner Solar System in relation to the lunar reference system. Space Sci. Rev. 96 , 55–86 (2001) Article ADS Google Scholar Ivanov, B. A. 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Nature (submitted) Murray, J. B. Evidence from the Mars Express High Resolution Stereo Camera for a frozen sea close to Mars' equator. Nature (2004) (submitted) Milkovich, S. M. & Head, J. W. Olympus Mons fan-shaped deposit morphology: Evidence for debris glaciers. 6th Int. Mars Conf. (abstr.) 3149 (2003). Head, J. W. et al. Recent ice ages on Mars. Nature 426 , 792–802 (2003) ADS Google Scholar Harris, S. A. The aureole of Olympus Mons. J. Geophys. Res. 82 , 3099–3107 (1977) Article ADS Google Scholar Lopes, R., Hiller, K., Neukum, G. & Guest, J. E. Further evidence of the Olympus Mons Aureole. J. Geophys. Res 87 , 9917–9928 (1982) Article ADS Google Scholar Baker, V. R. The Channels of Mars (Austin Univ. of Texas Press, Austin, 1982) Google Scholar McCord, T. et al. The color capabilities of the Mars Express High Resolution Stereo Camera. Eur. Geophys. Union 1st Gen. Assembly (abstr.) EGU04-A-06358 (2004). Bibring, J.-P., et al. 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The on-going space settlement debate has raised questions whether it is possible to settle other planets, and if it was, is it something humans should do. The problem with this space ethical discussion is that it can easily become too vague. To avoid this problem, we suggest a framework for identifying relevant variables that affect the feasibility constraints and desirability factors of establishing space settlements. The variables we focus on include the settlement stage, scale and time frame. Based on the relevant literature, we take mission cost, survival, habitation, water, in situ resources for food, oxygen and fuel energy and dependence on Earth as feasibility constraints that are relevant for the framework. None of them are hard constraints, but rather soft feasibility constraints that make it difficult to establish a permanent human settlement on Mars in the near- to medium-term future. However, in the past, humanity has achieved goals that first seemed infeasible. To justify the costs and effort, the goal must be highly morally desirable. We discuss five different desirability factors that could help justify the effort but as each framework has unique feasibility constraints, not all of these factors are sufficient or necessary to justify this effort. We argue that some of the desirability factors prominent in space ethical literature are not sufficient or necessary in our framework, and thus, we conclude that the normative grounds for establishing a permanent Mars settlement in the foreseeable future are weak.

This paper thoroughly explores the feasibility, challenges, and proposed solutions for establishing a sustainable human colony on Mars. We quantitatively and qualitatively analyze the Martian environment, highlighting key challenges such as radiation exposure, which astronauts could experience at minimum levels of 0.66 sieverts during a round trip, and the complications arising from Mars' thin atmosphere and extreme temperature variations. Technological advancements are examined, including developing Martian concrete, which utilizes sulfur as a binding agent, and innovative life support strategies like aeroponics and algae bioreactors. The human aspect of colonization is addressed, focusing on long-term space habitation's psychological and physiological impacts. We also present a cost-benefit analysis of in-situ resource utilization versus Earth-based supply missions, emphasizing economic viability with the potential reduction in launch costs through reusable rocket technology. A timeline for the colonization process is suggested, spanning preliminary unmanned missions for resource assessment, followed by short-term manned missions leading to sustainable settlements over several decades. The paper concludes with recommendations for future research, particularly in refining resource utilization techniques and advancing health and life support systems, to solidify the foundation for Mars colonization. This comprehensive assessment aims to guide researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders in planning and executing a strategic and informed approach to making Mars colonization a reality.

Olympus Mons (; Latin for 'Mount Olympus') is a large shield volcano on Mars. As measured by the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter (MOLA), it is 21.287 kilometres (69,840 ft) high, about 2.5 times the elevation of Mount Everest above sea level. It is Mars's tallest volcano, its tallest planetary mountain, and is approximately tied with Rheasilvia on Vesta as the tallest mountain currently discovered in Olympus Mons and a few other volcanoes in the Tharsis region stand high enough to reach above the frequent Martian dust-storms recorded by telescopic observers as early as the 19th century. The astronomer Patrick Moore pointed out that Schiaparelli (1835–1910) "had found that his Nodus Gordis and Olympic Snow [Nix Olympica] were almost the only features to be seen" during dust storms, and "guessed correctly that they must be high". The Mariner 9 spacecraft arrived in orbit around Mars in 1971 during a global dust-storm. The first objects to become visible as the dust began to settle, the tops of the Tharsis volcanoes, demonstrated that the altitude of these features greatly exceeded that of any mountain found on Earth, as astronomers expected. Observations of the planet from Mariner 9 confirmed that Nix Olympica was a volcano. Ultimately, astronomers adopted the name Olympus Mons for the albedo feature known as Nix Olympica. Astronomy Picture of the Day 26 May 2004 Western Flank of Olympus Mons and Aureole – inactive link Volcanism on Mars Eastern scarp of Olympus Mons – inactive link

This paper presents a comprehensive framework for designing and deploying aerial robots (aerobots) to revolutionise Mars exploration. The Martian environment, characterised by a tenuous atmosphere, extreme thermal variations, and diverse, often inaccessible terrain, presents fundamental challenges to the operational range and efficiency of conventional rovers and landers. Aerobots can overcome many of these limitations by enabling rapid regional surveys, accessing high-priority sites beyond rover reach, and supporting human exploration through environmental reconnaissance. Drawing on insights from past planetary missions, including the Ingenuity helicopter, the framework integrates planetary science constraints with aerospace engineering principles to address aerodynamic performance, structural integrity, autonomy, and environmental resilience. Central to this work is the Mars Aerobot Design Thinking Matrix, a decision-support tool that links mission objectives to testable engineering requirements, enabling systematic trade-off analysis across configuration, energy strategy, and operational margins. The proposed framework aims to guide the development of aerobots capable of sustained and scientifically productive operations in the unique conditions of Mars.

Tropical to mid-latitude snow and ice accumulation, flow and glaciation on Mars | Nature Skip to main content Thank you for visiting nature.com. You are using a browser version with limited support for CSS. To obtain the best experience, we recommend you use a more up to date browser (or turn off compatibility mode in Internet Explorer). In the meantime, to ensure continued support, we are displaying the site without styles and JavaScript. Advertisement Abstract Images from the Mars Express HRSC (High-Resolution Stereo Camera) of debris aprons at the base of massifs in eastern Hellas reveal numerous concentrically ridged lobate and pitted features and related evidence of extremely ice-rich glacier-like viscous flow and sublimation. Together with new evidence for recent ice-rich rock glaciers at the base of the Olympus Mons scarp superposed on larger Late Amazonian debris-covered piedmont glaciers, we interpret these deposits as evidence for geologically recent and recurring glacial activity in tropical and mid-latitude regions of Mars during periods of increased spin-axis obliquity when polar ice was mobilized and redeposited in microenvironments at lower latitudes. The data indicate that abundant residual ice probably remains in these deposits and that these records of geologically recent climate changes are accessible to future automated and human surface exploration. Figure 3: Deposits from a recent lobate rock glacier at the base of the Olympus Mons scarp (138° W, 18°). Figure 4: Ages of events in the lobate debris aprons. Similar content being viewed by others Eurasian ice sheet formation promoted by weak AMOC following MIS 3 Article Open access 02 March 2025 700,000 years of tropical Andean glaciation Article Open access 13 July 2022 The foundations of the Patagonian icefields Article Open access 22 March 2024 References Grove, J. M. The Little Ice Age (Routledge, London, 1988) Book Google Scholar Warren, C. R. Glaciers in the greenhouse. Geogr. Rev. 8 , 2–7 (1995) Google Scholar Mellon, M. T. & Jakosky, B. M. On the orbital forcing of Martian water and CO2 cycles: A general circulation model study with simplified volatile schemes. J. Geophys. Res. 108 , doi:10.1029/2003JE002051 (2003) Haberle, R. M. et al. Orbital change experiments with a Mars general circulation model. Icarus 161 , 66–89 (2003) Article ADS Google Scholar Head, J. W. et al. Recent ice ages on Mars. Nature 426 , 797–802 (2003) Article ADS CAS Google Scholar Head, J. W. & Marchant, D. R. 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Recent and episodic volcanic and glacial activity on Mars revealed by the High Resolution Stereo Camera. Nature 432 , 971–979 (2004) Article ADS CAS Google Scholar Hauber, E. et al. Discovery of a flank caldera and very young glacial activity at Hecates Tholus, Mars. The images reveal evidence for a frozen sea similar in area and depth to the North Sea on Earth, and some 5 million years old. Other surface features suggest recent climate change, as evidenced by snow, ice and glacial flow at mid-latitudes, and explosive volcanism 350 million years ago. show all Associated content Picturing a recently active Mars Victor R.