Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by high rates of comorbidity with other mental disorders, including anxiety disorders and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Beyond a mere concept of comorbidity, recent literature is speculating the existence of a neurodevelopmental nature of such mental disorders. The aim of the study is to investigate the distribution of social-phobic, obsessive–compulsive and panic-agoraphobic traits within a sample of individuals with ASD, social anxiety disorder (SAD), obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and panic disorder (PD). 40 participants with ASD, 40 with SAD, 40 with OCD, 40 with PD and 50 HC were assessed with the Social Anxiety Spectrum—Short Version (SHY-SV) questionnaire, the Obsessive—Compulsive Spectrum—Short Version (OBS-SV) questionnaire and the Panic Agoraphobic Spectrum—Short Version (PAS-SV) questionnaire. Statistical analyses included Kruskal–Wallis test and Chi-square test. When analyzing SHY-SV scores, the SAD group obtained the highest scores, with individuals with ASD following closely, significantly surpassing the scores of the remaining diagnostic groups. In the examination of OBS-SV questionnaire scores, individuals with ASD once again secured the second-highest scores, trailing only the OCD group. These scores were notably higher than those of both the PD group and healthy controls. In the analysis of PAS-SV scores, the ASD group once again achieved the highest scores after the PD individuals, although this time the difference was not statistically significant compared to the other diagnostic groups. These findings highlight the central role of the autism spectrum in SAD and OCD diagnoses. They provide support for the hypotheses of a neurodevelopmental basis for social anxiety and OCD, contributing to the growing body of evidence supporting a dimensional and interconnected view of mental health conditions. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article’s Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article’s Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/ . Abstract Objective Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterized by high rates of comorbidity with other mental disorders, including anxiety disorders and obsessive–compulsive disorder. Beyond a mere concept of comorbidity, recent literature is speculating the existence of a neurodevelopmental nature of such mental disorders. The aim of the study is to investigate the distribution of social-phobic, obsessive–compulsive and panic-agoraphobic traits within a sample of individuals with ASD, social anxiety disorder (SAD), obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD) and panic disorder (PD). They provide support for the hypotheses of a neurodevelopmental basis for social anxiety and OCD, contributing to the growing body of evidence supporting a dimensional and interconnected view of mental health conditions. Keywords: Autism spectrum disorder, Social anxiety disorder, Obsessive–compulsive disorder, Panic disorder status released display-pdf yes is-olf no is-manuscript no is-preprint no is-journal-matter no is-scanned no is-retracted no Received 2024 Jan 2; Accepted 2024 Nov 25; Collection date 2025. Introduction Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition marked by persistent challenges in social communication, interaction, and the presence of restrictive and repetitive behavior patterns [ 1 ]. Comorbidity is highly prevalent in individuals with ASD, extending beyond the common associations with intellectual developmental and language disorders. Approximately 70% of individuals with ASD also experience other mental health conditions [ 2 ]. Beyond the conventional concept of comorbidity, a substantial body of literature has emerged in recent decades supporting the idea that diverse mental disorders may share a common foundation of neurodevelopmental impairment. This perspective implies that there are no distinct boundaries between having no impairments, exhibiting elevated sub-clinical traits, and having a full-blown disorder. Even within the diagnosed group, there are considerable individual differences in the strength of symptoms [ 3 , 38 ]. Beyond the issue of comorbidity, particularly when considering that the diagnoses in the sample were mutually exclusive, it is crucial to emphasize the emerging consensus in research regarding SAD as a chronic neurodevelopmental condition [ 39 , 40 ]. Additionally, genetic variants related to glutamatergic, dopaminergic, and neurodevelopmental pathways have been implicated in determining the white matter This was observed particularly for SAD and OCD, supporting the hypothesis, already glimpsed in the literature, of a neurodevelopmental nature of these two mental disorders. Some limitations should be taken into account: the relatively small sample size, the self-report nature of the questionnaires, which may have led to either overestimation or underestimation of the symptoms by the individuals, and lastly, the cross-sectional design of the study, which restricts the exploration of temporal and causal relationships among the variables under investigation. However, when analyzing panic-agoraphobic symptoms, although participants with ASD consistently obtain the second-highest scores, these scores do not seem to significantly differ from the other diagnostic groups. These findings underscore the significance of the autism spectrum in the diagnoses of SAD, OCD, and PD, supporting the hypotheses of a neurodevelopmental nature of social anxiety and obsessive–compulsive disorders and expanding corpus of evidence endorsing a dimensional and interconnected perspective on mental disorders.

Background: Neurodevelopmental disorders are frequently and heterogeneously diagnosed among patients with dystrophinopathies. The clinical manifestation of intellectual development disorder had already been associated with the underlying DMD genotype, however correlation between others frequently diagnosed comorbidities and genotype is uncertain. Objective: We aimed to evaluate how the diagnostic of Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD), Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD), or Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) and patients genotype are related, as well as whether the prevalence of these comorbidities differ among the genotypic subgroups established. Methods: Childhood Autism Rating Scale (CARS), Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale for Children (CY-BOCS), and Swanson, Nolan and Pelham IV (SNAP-IV) scale were applied to 50 participants and their caregivers, mainly from the Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre (n=38) or other Brazilian centers (n=12). Participants were grouped according to their genotype and affected dystrophin isoforms. Results: The overall diagnostic rate for ASD was 34%, similar to OCD (35.5%). Half of the patients (51.4%) were diagnosed with ADHD. Cerebral isoforms were affected in more than half of the participants (52%). The diagnosis of ASD, CARS scores, and diagnosis of OCD were associated with genotype and impairment of cerebral isoforms. ADHD diagnostic rates were elevated across all the genotypic groups and showed no association with muscular or cerebral isoforms. Conclusion: Our results show that patients with DMD and impairment of cerebral dystrophin isoforms have an increased risk for ASD and OCD, and the identification of a patient with a genotype that affects these isoforms should prompt neuropsychological assessment and multidisciplinary follow-up.

PMC 5055577. PMID 27733282. "Neurodevelopmental Disorders". Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision (DSM-5-TR) Asperger syndrome (AS), also known as Asperger's syndrome or Asperger's, is a formerly used diagnostic category for a condition characterized by significant difficulties in social interaction and nonverbal communication, along with restricted and repetitive patterns of behavior and interests. It ceased to be a distinct diagnosis when it was merged into autism spectrum disorder (ASD) in the DSM-5 ( Anxiety disorders and major depressive disorder are the most common conditions seen at the same time; comorbidity of these in persons with AS is estimated at 65%. Reports have associated AS with medical conditions such as aminoaciduria and ligamentous laxity, but these have been case reports or small studies and no factors have been associated with AS across studies. One study of males with AS found an increased rate of epilepsy and a high rate (51%) of nonverbal learning disorder. AS is associated with tics, Tourette syndrome and bipolar disorder. The repetitive behaviors of AS have many similarities with the symptoms of obsessive–compulsive disorder and obsessive–compulsive personality disorder, and 26% of a sample of young adults with AS were found to meet the criteria for schizoid personality disorder (which is characterised by severe social seclusion and emotional detachment), more than any other personality disorder in the sample. However many of these studies are based on clinical samples or lack standardized measures; nonetheless, comorbid conditions are relatively common. It was similarly merged into autism spectrum disorder in the International Classification of Diseases (ICD-11) in 2018 (published, came into effect in 2022). The cause of autism, including what was formerly called Asperger syndrome, is not well understood. While it has high heritability, the underlying genetics have not been determined conclusively. Environmental factors are also believed The World Health Organization (WHO) previously defined Asperger syndrome (AS) as one of the pervasive developmental disorders (PDD), which are a spectrum of psychological disorders that are characterized by abnormalities of social interaction and communication that pervade the individual's functioning, and by restricted and repetitive interests and behavior. Like other neurodevelopmental conditions, ASD begins in infancy or childhood, has a steady course without remission or relapse, and has impairments that result from maturation-related changes in various systems of the brain. Stimming may have a connection with tics, and studies have reported a consistent comorbidity between AS and Tourette syndrome in the range of 8–20%, with one figure as high as 80% for tics of some kind or another, for which several explanations have been put forward, including common genetic factors and dopamine, glutamate, or serotonin abnormalities. According to the Adult Asperger Assessment (AAA) diagnostic test, a lack of interest in fiction and a positive preference towards non-fiction is common among adults with AS. They may be unusually sensitive or insensitive to sound, light, and other stimuli; these sensory responses are found in other developmental disorders and are not specific to AS or to ASD. There is little support for increased fight-or-flight response or failure of habituation in autism; there is more evidence of decreased responsiveness to sensory stimuli, although several studies show no differences. Hans Asperger's initial accounts and other diagnostic schemes include descriptions of physical clumsiness. Children with AS may be delayed in acquiring skills requiring dexterity, such as riding a bicycle or opening a jar, and may seem to move awkwardly or feel "uncomfortable in their own skin". They may be poorly coordinated or have an odd or bouncy gait or posture, poor handwriting, or problems with motor coordination. They may show problems with proprioception (sensation of body position) on measures of developmental coordination disorder (motor planning disorder), balance, tandem gait, and finger-thumb apposition. There is no evidence that these motor skills problems differentiate AS from other high-functioning ASDs. Conditions that must be considered in a differential diagnosis along with ADHD include other ASDs, the schizophrenia spectrum, personality disorders, obsessive–compulsive disorder, major depressive disorder, semantic pragmatic disorder, nonverbal learning disorder, social anxiety disorder, Tourette syndrome, stereotypic movement disorder, bipolar disorder, social-cognitive deficits due to brain damage from alcohol use disorder, and obsessive–compulsive personality disorder (OCPD). == Screening == Parents of children with Asperger syndrome can typically trace differences in their children's development to as early as 30 months of age. Although social impairment may be lifelong, the outcome is generally more positive than with individuals with lower-functioning autism spectrum disorders; for example, ASD symptoms are more likely to diminish with time in children with AS or forms of autism sometimes described as "high functioning". Most students with AS and forms of autism sometimes seen as "high functioning" have average mathematical ability and test slightly worse in mathematics than in general intelligence. However, mathematicians are at least three times more likely to have autism-spectrum traits than the general population, and are more likely to have family members with autism. Reports have associated AS with medical conditions such as aminoaciduria and ligamentous laxity, but these have been case reports or small studies and no factors have been associated with AS across studies. One study of males with AS found an increased rate of epilepsy and a high rate (51%) of nonverbal learning disorder. AS is associated with tics, Tourette syndrome and bipolar disorder.

associated with episodic memory, unwanted worries or memories from OCD, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), other anxiety disorders, eating disorders, or An intrusive thought is an unwelcome, involuntary thought, image, or unpleasant idea that may become an obsession, is upsetting or distressing, and can feel difficult to manage or eliminate. When such thoughts are paired with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), Tourette syndrome (TS), depression, autism, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), and sometimes attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) An intrusive thought is an unwelcome, involuntary thought, image, or unpleasant idea that may become an obsession, is upsetting or distressing, and can feel difficult to manage or eliminate. When such thoughts are paired with obsessive–compulsive disorder (OCD), Tourette syndrome (TS), depression, autism, body dysmorphic disorder (BDD), and sometimes attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), the thoughts may become paralyzing, anxiety-provoking, or persistent. Intrusive thoughts may also be associated with episodic memory, unwanted worries or memories from OCD, post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), other anxiety disorders, eating disorders, or psychosis. Intrusive thoughts, urges, and images are of inappropriate things at inappropriate times, and generally have aggressive or sexual themes. cau… Blasphemous thoughts are a common component of OCD, documented throughout history; notable religious figures such as Martin Luther and Ignatius of Loyola were known to be tormented by intrusive, blasphemous or religious thoughts and urges. Martin Luther had urges to curse God and Jesus, and…