Neuroimaging studies have shown that, despite the abstractness of music, it may mimic biologically rewarding stimuli (e.g., food) in its ability to engage the brain's reward circuitry. However, due to the lack of research comparing music and other types of reward, it is unclear to what extent the recruitment of reward-related structures overlaps among domains. To achieve this goal, we performed a coordinate-based meta-analysis of 38 neuroimaging studies (703 subjects) comparing the brain responses specifically to music and food-induced pleasure. Both engaged a common set of brain regions, including the ventromedial prefrontal cortex, ventral striatum, and insula. Yet, comparative analyses indicated a partial dissociation in the engagement of the reward circuitry as a function of the type of reward, as well as additional reward type-specific activations in brain regions related to perception, sensory processing, and learning. These results support the idea that hedonic reactions rely on the engagement of a common reward network, yet through specific routes of access depending on the modality and nature of the reward.

This article is a hypothesis and theory paper. It elaborates on the possible relation between music as a stimulus and its possible effects, with a focus on the question of why listeners are experiencing pleasure and reward. Though it is tempting to seek for a causal relationship, this has proven to be elusive given the many intermediary variables that intervene between the actual impingement on the senses and the reactions/responses by the listener. A distinction can be made, however, between three elements: (i) an objective description of the acoustic features of the music and their possible role as elicitors; (ii) a description of the possible modulating factors-both external/exogenous and internal/endogenous ones; and (iii) a continuous and real-time description of the responses by the listener, both in terms of their psychological reactions and their physiological correlates. Music listening, in this broadened view, can be considered as a multivariate phenomenon of biological, psychological, and cultural factors that, together, shape the overall, full-fledged experience. In addition to an overview of the current and extant research on musical enjoyment and reward, we draw attention to some key methodological problems that still complicate a full description of the musical experience. We further elaborate on how listening may entail both adaptive and maladaptive ways of coping with the sounds, with the former allowing a gentle transition from mere hedonic pleasure to eudaimonic enjoyment.

There is growing evidence regarding non-pharmacological therapies such as music as a supportive approach for the treatment of various clinical conditions in humans. Physiological and neurobiological research suggests that music exposure is related to endorphin, endocannabinoid and dopamine release, favourable effects on autonomic nervous system functioning and is associated with decreased pain perception and reduced stress response. Further evidence in humans demonstrates a beneficial role of music application during the perioperative period by improving various outcome measures, such as the perioperative stress and anxiety levels, the sedation or general anaesthetic requirements, the pain levels, the analgesic requirements and other parameters related to patient prognosis, without reported side effects. Accordingly, such interventions have been considered as a method of environmental enrichment for animal welfare enhancement, by masking potentially disturbing background noises and by ameliorating anxiety or aggressive behaviours in different stressful settings in dogs and cats. Furthermore, research has been lately extended to the potential music's effect in these species during the perioperative period, considered a stressful setting, as well. This review presents the existing evidence of music application focusing on the perioperative period of dogs and cats, as part of a multimodal approach, to improve their surgical outcome and welfare.

<h4>Introduction</h4>Trust is a cornerstone of human cooperation and social cohesion, while music is a universal phenomenon that promotes prosocial behavior and social bonding. Both music and trust processes engage overlapping neurobiological systems, yet their potential relationship remains largely unexplored.<h4>Methods</h4>We conducted a scoping review to systematically map existing research on music's influence on trust formation, identify conceptual and methodological gaps, and characterize the current evidence base. The analysis included 15 empirical studies across interpersonal, clinical, robotic, and institutional trust contexts. We further performed a hypothesis-generating convergence analysis of neurochemical, neuroimaging, and electrophysiological findings from the broader music and trust literatures.<h4>Results</h4>The review revealed sparse but suggestive evidence that musical interventions may influence trust-related outcomes. Convergence analysis identified shared mechanisms in dopaminergic reward pathways, the salience and default-mode networks, and EEG markers of salience and affect. Importantly, these patterns are interpreted as theoretical and exploratory, rather than direct evidence linking music and trust.<h4>Discussion</h4>Based on these findings, we propose the Preparatory Optimization Hypothesis, which posits that music may not directly induce trust, but instead primes affective, cognitive, and social systems to support its formation. This work extends music psychology beyond emotion and prosociality to include foundational social-cognitive processes, offering a testable framework for future interdisciplinary research at the interface of music and trust.

music listening, perceiving, performing, composing, reading, writing, and other related activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis The neuroscience of music is the scientific study of brain-based mechanisms involved in the cognitive processes underlying music. These behaviours include music listening, perceiving, performing, composing, reading, writing, and other related activities. It also is increasingly concerned with the brain basis for musical aesthetics and musical emotion. Scientists working in this field may have trai Music is able to create an intensely pleasurable experience that can be described as "chills". Blood and Zatorre (2001) used PET to measure changes in cerebral blood flow while participants listened to music that they knew to give them the "chills" or any sort of intensely pleasant emotional response. They found that as these chills increase, many changes in cerebral blood flow are seen in brain regions such as the amygdala, orbitofrontal cortex, ventral striatum, midbrain, and the ventral medial prefrontal cortex. Many of these areas appear to be linked to reward, motivation, emotion, and arousal, and are also activated in other pleasurable situations. The resulting pleasure responses enable the release dopamine, serotonin, and oxytocin. Nucleus accumbens (a part of striatum) is involved in both music related emotions, as well as rhythmic timing. Emotions induced by music activate similar frontal brain regions compared to emotions elicited by other stimuli. Schmidt and Trainor (2001) discovered that valence (i.e. positive vs. negative) of musical segments was distinguished by patterns of frontal EEG activity. Joyful and happy musical segments were associated with increases in left frontal EEG activity whereas fearful and sad musical segments were associated with increases in right frontal EEG activity. Additionally, the intensity of emotions was differentiated by the pattern of overall frontal EEG activity. Overall frontal region activity increased as affective musical stimuli became more intense. When unpleasant melodies are played, the posterior cingulate cortex activates, which indicates a sense of conflict or emotional pain. The right hemisphere has also been found to be correlated with emotion, which can also activate areas in the cingulate in times of emotional pain, specifically social rejection (Eisenberger). This evidence, along with observations, has led many musical theorists, philosophers and neuroscientists to link emotion with tonality. This seems almost obvious because the tones in music seem like a characterization of the tones in human speech, which indicate emotional content. The vowels in the phonemes of a song are elongated for a…

<h4>Introduction</h4>Cognitive decline in aging populations presents a growing public health concern. Music therapy has emerged as a promising non-invasive approach to enhance cognitive function.<h4>Methods</h4>This meta-analysis synthesized data from 14 studies (2010-2025) assessing Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE) outcomes following music therapy interventions.<h4>Results</h4>Results revealed a significant improvement in cognitive function (SMD = 0.46, 95% CI: 0.26 to 0.67), particularly with passive listening-based therapies administered for more than 3 months (SMD = 0.62, 95% CI: 0.05 to 1.20). Furthermore, non-RCT study designs and publications made after 2019 showed larger effects due to larger sample sizes and technological advancements. These findings support the hypothesis that auditory-based music therapy may facilitate neuroplasticity via modulation of the dopaminergic system and default mode network connectivity. The results underscore the therapeutic potential of music-based interventions as accessible, scalable, and non-invasive strategies for cognitive enhancement across diverse clinical populations.<h4>Discussion</h4>Music therapy, especially passive listening interventions, shows significant promise for improving cognitive function in aging populations. Larger effects in recent non-RCT studies likely reflect technological advancements and improved methodologies. Future research should standardize protocols, examine long-term outcomes, and investigate the neurobiological mechanisms, particularly dopaminergic modulation and default mode network changes, to optimize therapeutic strategies and validate music therapy's role in cognitive health.<h4>Systematic review registration</h4>https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/PROSPERO/view/CRD420251004837, identifier PROSPERO (CRD420251004837).