... change, and grammar usually undergoes more dra- matic changes than the sound system and even the vocabulary. Generally, studies in the comparative method ... regular correspondences between languages permits the assumption that the ... Utilizing a historical and international approach, this valuable two-volume resource makes even the more complex linguistic issues understandable for the non-specialized reader. Containing over 500 alphabetically arranged entries and an expansive glossary by a team of international scholars, the Encyclopedia of Linguisticsexplores the varied perspectives, figures, and methodologies that make up the field. Pratinjau buku ini » Halaman terpilih Halaman 59 Halaman 71 Daftar Isi Isi A 1 B 113 C 169 D 253 E 279 F 323 G 367 H 429 O 763 P 801 Q 885 R 893 S 919 T 1073 U 1137 V 1151 Lengkap I 487 J 549 K 569 L 589 M 639 N 721 W 1163 Y 1195 Z 1205 Index 1211 Hak Cipta Ringkas Edisi yang lain - Lihat semua Encyclopedia of Linguistics Philipp Strazny Pratinjau terbatas - 2013 Istilah dan frasa umum acquisition adjectives affixes African Ainu American Amharic analysis Arabic Arawak languages basic bilingual Cambridge University Press Cariban languages Celtic languages century Chinese Chinook Jargon Chomsky clause code-switching cognitive communication consonants context Creole cultural deixis dialects diglossia discourse Dravidian Dravidian languages English ethnic European example expressed French function gender German Germanic languages grammar Greek guage guistic Hawaii Creole English Hindi Hmong human language Igbo India Indo-European Indo-European languages inflectional influence John Latin lexical linguistic London Mande languages marker meaning modern morphemes morphology Mouton nasal native Northern noun object official language Oxford phonetic phonology phrase pidgin plural prefixes pronouns References region Sanskrit semantic sentence Sign Language Slavic Slavic languages social sociolinguistic sound speakers speech spoken standard structure suffixes syllable syntactic syntax tense texts theory tion tive varieties verb vocabulary vowels word order York Informasi bibliografi Judul Encyclopedia of Linguistics Editor Philipp Strazny Edisi berilustrasi Penerbit Taylor & Francis, 2013 ISBN 1135455236, 9781135455231 Tebal 1304 halaman &nbsp &nbsp Ekspor Kutipan BiBTeX EndNote RefMan Tentang Google Buku - Kebijakan Privasi - Persyaratan Layanan - Informasi untuk Penerbit - Laporkan masalah - Bantuan - Beranda Google

Loanword analysis is a unique contribution of historical linguistics to our understanding of prehistoric cultural interfaces. As language reflects the lives of its speakers, the substantiation of loanwords draws on the composite evidence from linguistic as well as auxiliary data from archaeology and genetics through triangulation. The Bronze Age of Central Asia is in principle linguistically mute, but a host of recent independent observations that tie languages, cultures and genetics together in various ways invites a comprehensive reassessment of six highly diagnostic loanwords ('seven', 'name/fame', 'sister-in-law', 'honey', 'metal' and 'horse') that are associated with the Bronze Age. Moreover, they are shared between Indo-European, Uralic, Turkic and sometimes Old Chinese. The successful identification of the interfaces for these loanwords can help settle longstanding debates on languages, migrations and the items themselves. Each item is analysed using the comparative method with reference to the archaeological record to assess the plausibility of a transfer. I argue that the six items can be dated to have entered Central and East Asian languages from immigrant Indo-European languages spoken in the Afanasievo and Andronovo cultures, including a novel source for the 'horse' in Old Chinese. The branch consists of two closely related languages, aptly named Tocharian A and Tocharian B, that through the comparative method can be reconstructed back to Proto-Tocharian, commonly believed to have been spoken in the same region sometime in the first millennium BC (Mallory, 2015 : 9; Blažek & Schwartz, 2017 ). The phonology and extensive agglutinative nominal system of Tocharian have a deviant typology and have played a pivotal role in charting its development (Peyrot, 2019b ; Warries, 2019 ; Bednarczuk, 2015 ; Krause, 1951 ); a similar change is reflected in the culture that appears as Buddhist, although the conversion can only be few centuries old (Mallory, 2015 : 3; Pinault, 1998 ). The linguistic chronologies afforded by the comparative method in the form of language families allow us to evaluate the expansion of the vocabularies in daughter languages, and frequently comparative linguists are left to assume loanwords from an otherwise undocumented language. The subsequent discussion of the more methodologically challenging task of identifying loanwords is of relevance to linguist readers as well. The comparative method Historical linguistics rely on regular sound laws to establish descent from a shared proto-language (Campbell, 2013 ; Anttila, 1989 ). These sound laws are established by applying the comparative method to sets of words in different languages, an example of which can be seen in the cognate set of Table 2 . English and Danish regularly agree to an initial f- where Latin has p- , which, indeed, is one of the characteristics that defines the Germanic branch as distinct from the Italic branch. Table 2. A cognate set between English, Danish and Latin. English foot fish father Danish fod fisk fader Latin pēs piscis pater When such sound laws can be established to work consistently within a group of languages, they are said to be related. Words in a protolanguage are theoretically deduced and are consequently marked with an asterisk, thus Proto-Indo-European * pods ‘foot’. By collecting all the shared traits in related languages, a more comprehensive proto-language can be reconstructed. The comparative method thus extends the observable developments from attested branches, such as Scandinavian from Old Norse and the Romance languages from Vulgar Latin, into prehistory. The predictability of the method has been confirmed with the discovery of previously hypothesised forms in earlier language stages, including laryngeals in the Anatolian branch of Indo-European and labiovelars in the ancient Greek language of Mycenaean. In prehistory without written artefacts, the comparative method operates exclusively with relative chronologies, where the sound developments can be layered in stratigraphies not unlike an archaeological dig. When a word can be dated with reference to real world items or events it is possible to fit concrete dating to linguistic developments. Only regular sound developments can qualify descent from a common ancestor. Yet since resemblance can arise also through shared inheritance as well as chance, historical linguists commonly stipulate different criteria to determine loanwords (Campbell, 2013 : 61–66; Haspelmath & Tadmor, 2009 : 43–45; Epps, 2015 ). These are based on phonological clues (the sound inventories of the language), morphological complexity (the parts of speech usually employed to build words) and cognacy (related words in other languages). Unfortunately, both native speakers and comparative linguists apply the internal logic of the language to nativise foreign elements through a phenomenon known as folk etymology (Anttila, 1989 : 92–94): foreign sounds are likened to native sounds and morphology is changed through re-analysis, e.g. English sparrow grass for asparagus , or crayfish from Old French crevice . If the internal logic of the folk etymology is accepted and the transfer not directly documented, the possibility of a loanword may erroneously be abandoned. Moreover, these criteria rely on knowledge of a full chronology of the languages involved, and are consequently difficult to apply stringently to comparisons between linguistic isolates, including proto-languages (Haugen, 1950 ). The comparative method dictates that word comparisons between identified languages follow regular sound correspondences, and the identification of such sound laws is employed to establish loanword directionality. This requires a significant amount of linguistic material to evaluate. At the linguistic proto-stage or with poorly or un-attested languages, however, the number of comparanda (i.e.

attested and reconstructed forms, comparative linguists prefix an asterisk to any form that is not found in surviving texts. A number of methods for carrying Comparative linguistics is a branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical relatedness. Genetic relatedness implies a common origin or proto-language and comparative linguistics aims to construct language families, to reconstruct proto-languages and specify the changes that have resulted in the documented languages. To maintain a clear di Com… Comparative linguistics is a branch of historical linguistics that is concerned with comparing languages to establish their historical relatedness. Genetic relatedness implies a common origin or proto-language and comparative linguistics aims to construct language families, to reconstruct proto-languages and specify the changes that have resulted in the documented languages. To maintain a clear distinction between attested and reconstructed forms, comparative linguists prefix an asterisk to any form that is not found in surviving texts. A number of methods for carrying out language classification have been developed, ranging from simple inspection to computerised hypothesis testing. Such methods have gone through a long process of development. == Methods == The fundamental technique of comparative linguistics is to compare phonological systems, morphological systems, syntax and the lexicon of two or more languages using techniques such as the comparative method. In principle, every difference between two related languages should be explicable to a high degree of plausibility; systematic changes, for example in phonological or morphological systems are expected to be highly regular (consistent). In practice, the comparison may be more restricted, e.g. just to the lexicon. In some methods it may be possible to reconstruct an earlier proto-language. The theoretical basis of such methods is that vocabulary items can be matched without a detailed language reconstruction and that comparing enough vocabulary items will negate individual inaccuracies; thus, they can be used to determine relatedness but not to determine the proto-language. == History == The earliest method of this type was the comparative method, which was developed over a number of years, culminating in the nineteenth century. This uses a long word list and detailed study. However, it has been criticized for example as subjective, informal, and lacking testability. The comparative method uses information from two or more languages and allows reconstruction of the ancestral language. The method of internal reconstruction uses only a single language, with comparison of word variants, to perform the same function. Internal reconstruction is more resistant to interference but usually has a limited available base of utilizable words and is able to reconstruct only certain changes (those that have left traces as morphophonological variations). In the twentieth century an alternative method, lexicostatistics, was developed, which is mainly associated with Morris Swadesh but is based on earlier work. Greenberg suggested that the method is useful for preliminary grouping of languages known to be related as a first step toward more in-depth comparative analysis. However, since mass comparison eschews the establishment of regular changes, it is flatly rejected by the majority of historical linguists. Recently, computerised statistical hypothesis testing methods have been developed which are related to both the comparative method and lexicostatistics. Character based methods are similar to the former and distanced based methods are similar to the latter (see Quantitative comparative linguistics). The characters used can be morphological or grammatical as well as lexical. Since the mid-1990s these more sophisticated tree- and network-based phylogenetic methods have been used to investigate the relationships between languages and to determine approximate dates for proto-languages. These are considered by some to show promise but are not wholly accepted by traditionalists. However, they are not intended to replace older methods but to supplement them. Such statistical methods cannot be used to derive the features of a proto-language, apart from the fact of the existence of shared items of the compared vocabulary. This is also an important issue both for the comparative method and for the lexical comparison methods, since failure to recognize a loan may distort the findings. Contrastive linguistics compares languages usually with the aim of assisting language learning by identifying important differences between the learner's native and target languages. Contrastive linguistics deals solely with present-day languages. Just as Egyptian is related to Brabantic, following Becanus in his Hieroglyphica, still using comparative methods. The first practitioners of comparative linguistics were not universally acclaimed: upon reading Becanus' book, Scaliger wrote, "never did I read greater nonsense", and Leibniz coined the term goropism (from Goropius) to designate a far-sought, ridiculous etymology. There have also been assertions that humans are descended from non-primate animals, with the use of the voice being the primary basis for comparison. He suggested that the French word logement, meaning 'dwelling,' originated from the word l'eau, which means 'water.' == See also == Comparative method Comparative literature Contrastive analysis Contrastive linguistics Glottochronology Historical linguistics Intercontinental Dictionary Series Lexicostatistics Mass comparison Moscow School of Comparative Linguistics Pseudoscientific language comparison Quantitative comparative linguistics Sound law == References == == Bibliography == August Schleicher: Compendium der vergleichenden Grammatik der indogermanischen Sprachen.

Thus in Arabia and Lithuania the population has remained practically unmixed in the same habitat for thousands of years, with the result that the languages spoken there remain at the present day the most archaic members of the linguistic families to which they respectively belong. From what has been said it will be obvious that a phonetic law is only an observed uniformity in the treatment of a sound or a combination of sounds within a linguistic area at a given time. In the definition the term linguistic area is a very variable quantity. Thus it is a phonetic law that a sound of the original Indo-European language, the precise pronunciation of which cannot be determined, but which was at any rate a palatal sound (ǩ), appears in the Indo-European group (Sanskrit, Zend, Old Persian, with their descendants), in Armenian, in Balto-Slavonic and Albanian, in the form of a sibilant, while in Greek, the Italic dialects, Germanic and Celtic, it appears as a k-sound (see Indo-European Languages). Here the linguistic area is extremely wide, and it is clear that the difference between the two groups of languages must be dated back to a very early period.