We are assuming a Winterberg model for space where the vacuum consists of a very stiff two component superfluid made up of positive and negative mass planckions. This vast assembly (sea), of positive and negative mass particles, creates an ether-like medium, the vacuum, which is macroscopically massless, has zero net gravitational pressure, and zero net entropy, in the undisturbed state. Q theory is the hypothesis, presented here for the first time, that Planck charge, q_Pl , was created at the same time as Planck mass. Moreover, the repulsive force that like-mass planckions experience is, in reality, due to the electrostatic force of repulsion between like charges. These forces also give rise to what appears to be a gravitational force of attraction between two like planckions, but this is an illusion. In reality, gravity is electrostatic in origin if our model is correct. We determine the spring constant associated with planckion masses, and find that, κ=4 ζ(3)ħc n_+ (0) , where ζ(3) equals Apery's constant, 1.202…, and, n_+ (0)=n_- (0) , is the relaxed, i.e., g =0 , number density of the positive and negative mass planckions. In the present epoch, we estimate that, n_+ (0) equals, 7.848 E54 m^(-3), and the relaxed distance of separation between nearest neighbor positive, or negative, planckion pairs is, l_+ (0)=l_- (0)=5.032 E-19 meters. These values were determined using box quantization for the positive and negative mass planckions, and considering transitions between energy states, much like as in the hydrogen atom. For the cosmos as a whole, given a net smeared macroscopic gravitational field of, (g_0 ) =2.387 E-9, due to all the ordinary, and bound, matter contained within the observable universe (the Hubble radius), an average displacement from equilibrium for the planckion masses is a mere 7.566 E-48 meters, within the vacuum made up of these particles. On the surface of the earth, where, g=9.81 m/s^2, the displacement amounts to, 7.824 E-38 meters. All of these displacements are due to increased gravitational pressure within the vacuum, which in turn are caused by applied gravitational fields. The gravitational potential is also derived and directly related to gravitational pressure.

Opposite electric poles attract while like poles repel, this is a very simple concept after experimental observation, this interpretation create basis of Strong Nuclear Force mystery; on atomic nucleus protons hold positive charge, and don’t repel each other due to Strong Force glue. Key to solving the mystery lies in analyzing how attraction and repulsion works. Considering electrical attraction is produced by electrons flow from one pole to the opposite, we can deduce; repulsion between two positive punctual charges is product by electrons lack on approaching side between the two charges due to competition to capture electrons. Consequently, electron capture occurs on opposite approaching side, since there is no competition on this side. By capturing electrons on opposite approaching side, repulsion happens, or rather, attraction occur toward opposite approaching side. This analysis would greatly simplify electrical behavior and explain fundamental questions remained unexplained, such as why two equal electric currents parallel wires attract each other (the basic experiment of magnetism). This would unify electricity and magnetism concepts, as well as explain Strong Nuclear Force in a simple way: If electrical attraction and repulsion are unified into a single attractive force, then protons have no problem coexisting in the atomic nucleus due to the absence of repulsion. Strong Force mystery would be solved.

Newton's Universal Gravitational Law (1) provided the magnitude of the Force of the attraction between massive bodies. However, the reason what causes this attraction remained a mystery until the introduction of Einstein's General Relativity Theory (GRT) (2). GRT explained the attraction between massive bodies, but Physics does not provide yet a tested, verifiable explanation to the question: why Electric Charges attract and repel each other, despite the fact, that the Coulomb's Law Force (3) provided the magnitude of the Force of the attraction or the repulsion between Electric Charges. Current main stream Physics does provide several theories which attempt to provide an explanation to why Electric Charges attract and repel each other, but all these theories are still in the stage of research and investigation, and none propose a feasible test or experiment to provide additional validity to its claims. This paper proposes tentative additional explanations to the question: why Electric Charges attract and repel each other, along with a feasible proposed experiment.

(Coulomb's law): opposite charges attract, like charges repel. Magnetic poles (or states of polarization at individual points) attract or repel one another In physics, electromagnetism is an interaction that occurs between particles with electric charge via electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature. It is the dominant force in the interactions of atoms and molecules. Electromagnetism describes and relates the three distinct but closely intertwined phenomena of electricity, magnetism, and optics. Electric charges attract or repel one another with a force inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them (Coulomb's law): opposite charges attract, like charges repel. Magnetic poles (or states of polarization at individual points) attract or repel one another in a manner similar to positive and negative charges and always exist as pairs: every north pole is yoked to a south pole. An electric current inside a wire creates a corresponding circumferential magnetic field outside the wire. Its direction (clockwise or counter-clockwise) depends on the direction of the current in the wire. A current is induced in a loop of wire when it is moved toward or away from a magnetic field, or a magnet is moved towards or away from it; the direction of current depends on that of the movement. In April 1820, Hans Christian Ørsted observed that an electrical current in a wire caused a nearby compass needle to move. At the time of discovery, Ørsted did not suggest any satisfactory explanation of the phenomenon, nor did he try to represent the phenomenon in a mathematical framework. However, three months later he began more intensive investigations. Soon thereafter he published his findings, proving that an electric current produces a magnetic field as it flows through a wire. The CGS unit of magnetic induction (oersted) is named in honor of his contributions to the field of electromagnetism. His findings influenced French physicist André-Marie Ampère's developments of a single mathematical form to represent the magnetic forces between current-carrying conductors. This unification, which was observed by Michael Faraday, extended by James Clerk Maxwell, and partially reformulated by Oliver Heaviside and Heinrich Hertz, is one of the key accomplishments of 19th-century mathematical physics. It has had far-reaching consequences, one of which was the understanding of the nature of light. Unlike what was proposed by the electromagnetic theory of that time, light and other electromagnetic waves are at present seen as taking the form of quantized, self-propagating oscillatory electromagnetic field disturbances called photons. Different frequencies of oscillation give…

This paper demonstrates that the Coulomb electromagnetic force emerges naturally from the Lattice Field Medium (LFM) governing equations when the wave field is extended to complex values. KEY DISCOVERY: Electric charge is encoded in the phase of complex wave functions.- θ = 0 → negative charge (electron)- θ = π → positive charge (positron) THE MECHANISM:When two charged particles (waves with phase) overlap, their total energy density is:|Ψ₁ + Ψ₂|² = |Ψ₁|² + |Ψ₂|² + 2|Ψ₁||Ψ₂|cos(θ₁ - θ₂) The interference cross-term depends on relative phase:• Same phase (Δθ = 0): constructive interference → MORE energy → REPULSION• Opposite phase (Δθ = π): destructive interference → LESS energy → ATTRACTION Force = -dE/dr gives exactly the Coulomb sign rule: like charges repel, unlike attract. VALIDATED PHENOMENA (all using only GOV-01 and GOV-02):1. ✓ Coulomb force sign: Same phase repels, opposite attracts2. ✓ Inverse square law: Emerges in point-charge limit3. ✓ Fine structure constant: α = 11/(480π) = 1/137.088 (0.04% error)4. ✓ Charge quantization: Only θ = 0, π give stable interactions5. ✓ Pair annihilation: |e^(i0) + e^(iπ)|² = 0 (complete cancellation) SIGNIFICANCE:• The U(1) gauge symmetry of QED is NOT postulated but EMERGES from complex wave phase freedom• Electromagnetism joins gravity, dark matter, and quantum mechanics as emergent LFM phenomena• No external electromagnetic axioms are required This is Paper 65 in the LFM series. Keywords: Coulomb force, electric charge, wave phase

Abstract The cosmological effects of a slight difference of charge between the proton and electron are considered. It is shown that in order to obtain a steady-state solution of the cosmological equations the terms by which Maxwell’s equations are modified must be of an opposite sign to that considered recently by Lyttleton & Bondi. The change of sign has the effect of altering the Coulomb law of force between charges at large distances apart, in such a way that unlike charges repel while like charges attract. In the steady-state solution the mean spatial density of matter is such that the electrostatic potential is of an opposite sign to that which would be given by Coulomb’s law. In this situation the charges are in fact attractive, not repulsive as considered by Lyttleton & Bondi. The effect of creation of matter in pairs is considered. It appears that the change of Coulomb’s law might be used to separate matter and anti-matter. The process of separation produces an electric current, leading to the existence of an intergalactic magnetic field.

In the vicinity of an electron charge, another charge feels a force of attraction or repulsion: opposite charges attract; like charges repel. When charges are not in motion, we observe only this electric attraction or repulsion. If charges are in motion, however (as they are inside every atom and in a wire carrying a current), then we measure another force called magnetism. Magnetism was well known for much of recorded human history, but its cause was not understood until the nineteenth century. Experiments with electric charges demonstrated that magnetism was the result of moving charged particles. Sometimes, the motion is clear, as in the coils of heavy wire that make an industrial electromagnet. Other times, it is more subtle, as in the kind of magnet you buy in a hardware store, in which many of the electrons inside the atoms are spinning in roughly the same direction; it is the alignment of their motion that causes the material to become magnetic. Physicists use the word field to describe the action of forces that one object exerts on other distant objects.

forces on each other, creating or tending to create motion, and also induce electric charges on neighbouring surfaces. The reader possessed of no previous

follows: An electrostatic unit of electric quantity is the charge which when placed upon a very small sphere repels another similarly charged sphere,

distance between them. Coulomb discovered that bodies with like electrical charges repel: It follows therefore from these three tests, that the repulsive Coulomb's inverse-square law, or simply Coulomb's law, is a scientific law of physics that describes the amount of force between two electrically charged particles at rest. This electric force is conventionally called the electrostatic force or Coulomb force. Although the law was known earlier, it was first published in 1785 by French physicist Charles-Augustin de Coulomb. Coulomb's law was essent wh…