Behavioral processes underlying sexual behavior are important for understanding normal human functioning and risk behavior leading to sexually transmitted infections (STIs). This systematic review examines delay and probability discounting in human sexual behavior through synthesis of 50 peer-reviewed, original research articles. Sixteen studies focusing exclusively on monetary delay discounting found small effect size positive correlations with sexual risk behaviors. Eleven studies examined delay or probability discounting of sexual behavior itself using tasks that varied duration, frequency, or quality of sex to determine value. Results show delay and uncertainty of sex causes systematic decreases in value. These studies also show consistent medium effect size relationships between sexual discounting measures and sexual health and substance use, supporting utility above and beyond monetary discounting. Twenty-three studies have modeled clinically relevant decision-making, examining effects of delay until condom availability and STI contraction probability on condom use. Observational and experimental designs found condom-use discounting is elevated in high-risk substance use populations, is sensitive to context (e.g., partner desirability), and is more robustly related to sexual risk compared with monetary discounting or condom use decisions when no delay/uncertainty was involved. Administering cocaine, alcohol, and, for some participants, methamphetamine increased condom-use discounting with minimal effect on monetary discounting or condom use when no delay/uncertainty was involved. Reviewed studies robustly support that sexual behavior is highly dependent on delay and probability discounting, and that these processes strongly contribute to sexual risk. Future research should exploit these systematic relationships to design behavioral and pharmacological approaches to decrease sexual risk behavior. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Delay discounting reflects the systematic reduction in the value of a consequence by delay to delivery. Theoretical and empirical work suggests that delay discounting is a key behavioral mechanism underlying substance use disorder. Existing work on cannabis use, however, is mixed with many studies reporting null results. The purpose of this review was to provide an in-depth assessment of the association between delay discounting and cannabis use. We conducted metaregression analyses to determine the omnibus correlation between delay discounting and cannabis use, and to evaluate task-based and sample-based moderators. Studies included evaluated an association between delay discounting and cannabis quantity-frequency or severity measures in human participants (27 studies, 61 effect sizes, 24,782 participants). A robust variance estimation method was used to account for dependence among effect sizes. A significant, but small, omnibus effect was observed (<i>r</i> = .082) in which greater cannabis use frequency or severity was associated with greater discounting. Incentive structure and outcome type were each significant moderators in a multiple moderator model such that incentivized tasks correlated with severity measures showed stronger associations (<i>r</i> = .234) than hypothetical tasks correlated with quantity-frequency measures (<i>r</i> = .029). Comparisons to historic effect size data supported the hypothesis that, at present, the relationship between cannabis use and delay discounting appears empirically smaller than for other substances. Future work should explore theoretical rationales explaining this modest relationship involving cannabis use and delay discounting, such as reflecting the smaller magnitude of perceived long-term clinical outcomes associated with cannabis compared to other substances. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2021 APA, all rights reserved).

Self-control denotes the ability to override current desires to render behavior consistent with long-term goals. A key assumption is that self-control is required when short-term desires are transiently stronger (more preferred) than long-term goals and people would yield to temptation without exerting self-control. We argue that this widely shared conception of self-control raises a fundamental yet rarely discussed conceptual paradox: How is it possible that a person most strongly desires to perform a behavior (e.g., eat chocolate) and <i>at the same time</i> desires to recruit self-control to prevent themselves from doing it? A detailed analysis reveals that three common assumptions about self-control cannot be true simultaneously. To avoid the paradox, any coherent theory of self-control must abandon either the assumption (a) that recruitment of self-control is an intentional process, or (b) that humans are unitary agents, or (c) that self-control consists in overriding the currently strongest desire. We propose a taxonomy of different kinds of self-control processes that helps organize current theories according to which of these assumptions they abandon. We conclude by outlining unresolved questions and future research perspectives raised by different conceptions of self-control and discuss implications for the question of whether self-control can be considered rational.

Intertemporal decision making refers to the behavior of making decisions after weighing the costs and benefits of two or more outcomes at different time points. This study explores the moderating effect of self-concept clarity on the influence of future self-continuity on intertemporal decision-making and the mediating effect of future outcome consideration, aiming to establish a mediated moderating model. In Study 1, we recruited 370 participants via questionnaire to explore the relationship between future self-continuity and intertemporal decision-making, as well as the moderating effect of self-concept clarity. The results showed that: (1) Future self-continuity significantly negatively predicted the time discount rate of intertemporal decision-making. (2) Self-concept clarity significantly negatively moderated the relationship between future self-continuity and the time discount rate of intertemporal decision-making. In Study 2, we recruited 234 participants using an experimental method and divided them into high and low future self-continuity groups to explore the mediating effect of future outcome consideration and the moderating role of self-concept clarity in the influence of future self-continuity on intertemporal decision-making. The results indicated that: (1) Self-concept clarity significantly negatively moderated the impact of future self-continuity on future outcome consideration. (2) Future outcome consideration mediated the moderating effect of self-concept clarity on the influence of future self-continuity on intertemporal decision-making. The findings indicated that future self-continuity negatively impacted the time discount rate in intertemporal decision-making. Furthermore, self-concept clarity could indirectly regulate the effect of future self-continuity on intertemporal decision-making through future outcome consideration. These two studies contribute to a better understanding of intertemporal decision-making behavior in different states, help reduce cognitive bias through rational analysis of current states, achieve maximum life benefits, and enrich empirical research in the fields of future self-continuity and intertemporal decision-making.

<h4>Introduction</h4>Delayed rewards discounting describes the tendency to choose a smaller immediate rewards instead of a larger delayed rewards. Considering the central role of impulsivity in models accounting for criminal conduct in general and violent behavior, the relationship between delayed rewards discounting and crime is likely to be present. Thereby extending the reported association with the addictive behavior. However, it is unclear whether it should be treated as a risk or an etiological factor. Consequently, the current literature review aims to summarize the existing empirical research focused on this aspect of impulsive decision-making among those who have offended.<h4>Methods</h4>The review was performed in accordance with the 2021 Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The literature search of the Web of Science, PubMed, and PsycINFO databases was conducted in February 2025.<h4>Results</h4>The initial search yielded 1,251 articles. After exclusion of 250 duplicates, 1,001 titles were screened for relevance, leading to 556 abstracts. After reading them, 162 full-text articles were inspected, leaving 25 articles included in the review.<h4>Conclusion</h4>This review demonstrates that although delayed rewards discounting is associated with general criminal conduct, the association with violence specifically is tenuous. Furthermore, several studies point out that influencing serotonergic functioning, behavioral modeling, or future representations have the potential to influence it. However, further detailed research is needed.

<h4>Background</h4>Delay discounting is the reduction in perceived value of rewards over time, a concept studied in psychology and economics to understand decision-making and health behaviors. Its impact on physical activity is gaining interest, but has not been systematically quantified. This meta-analysis aimed to clarify the strength and direction of the continuous association between delay discounting and physical activity.<h4>Methods</h4>Studies incorporating monetary delay discounting and physical activity were identified through PubMed, Web of Science, Embase, and PsycINFO. Random effects meta-analysis was conducted using Pearson's r as the effect size. Publication bias was assessed using fail-safe N, Begg-Mazumdar, and Egger's tests, as well as meta-regression and imputation of missing studies.<h4>Results</h4>Twelve effect sizes from 10 studies were included. The primary analysis found a small but significant negative correlation (<i>r</i> =  - 0.155, <i>P</i> < 0.001) between delay discounting and physical activity. No statistical difference was found between two delay discounting measures (Qbetween = 0.039, <i>P</i> = 0.844). Sensitivity analysis confirmed the robustness of the effect size, and no significant bias was detected.<h4>Conclusions</h4>This meta-analysis finds a small negative correlation between delay discounting and physical activity, suggesting that individuals who value the future slightly engage more in physical activity. Further research should explore how delay discounting can be incorporated into exercise interventions, especially for individuals with atypical time preferences, to improve physical activity and health outcomes.

Current evidence-based treatments for smoking cessation have made progress, but substantial room for innovation remains and novel strategies are needed. Successful smoking cessation may be considered, in part, an intertemporal choice between continuing to smoke and achieving the delayed health benefits associated with quitting (e.g., avoidance of lung cancer). Thus, quitting requires one's behavior to be sufficiently motivated by future outcomes. Unfortunately, robust cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence indicates that people who smoke cigarettes show elevated delay discounting, or a bias for immediate gratification. Prior research shows that delay discounting predicts treatment failure and relapse in smoking cessation. These findings suggest that delay discounting often prevents successful quitting because the health benefits of cessation (e.g., avoiding cancer) are too delayed to motivate sustained behavioral change. Thus, delay discounting is a therapeutic target in smoking cessation, where interventions that increase valuation of future outcomes may facilitate quitting.

Cardiovascular diseases remain the leading cause of morbidity and mortality worldwide. Although engagement in cardiovascular health behaviors is essential for cardiovascular disease prevention and management, adherence to these behaviors remains suboptimal. Intertemporal decision-making, which involves weighting immediate versus future consequences, has been proposed as a mechanism underlying poor health behavior engagement. Episodic future thinking, a strategy that encourages individuals to vividly imagine future events, may enhance future-oriented decision-making and promote healthier behaviors. However, its effectiveness in promoting cardiovascular health behaviors in naturalistic settings remains unclear. To systematically evaluate the effectiveness of episodic future thinking in promoting cardiovascular health behaviors and modifying delay discounting in naturalistic settings. Nine electronic databases (four Chinese and five English) were searched from inception to February 2026. Randomized controlled trials evaluating episodic future thinking interventions for behavior change in naturalistic settings were included. Two reviewers independently conducted title screening, data extraction, and risk-of-bias assessment using the Risk of Bias 2.0 (RoB2) tool. Meta-analyses were performed using Review Manager 5.3. Sixteen randomized controlled trials involving 881 participants were included. Compared with control conditions, episodic future thinking significantly reduced energy purchased (SMD = -0.57, 95% CI: [-0.96, -0.17], P = 0.005), alcohol consumption (SMD = -0.46, 95% CI: [-0.88, -0.05], P = 0.03), and increased physical activity (SMD = 0.29, 95% CI: [0.03, 0.55], P = 0.03). Episodic future thinking also significantly reduced delay discounting (SMD = -0.35, 95% CI: [-0.59, -0.11], P = 0.004), suggesting improved future-oriented decision-making. Episodic future thinking appears to be a promising behavioral intervention for improving cardiovascular health behaviors and reducing delay discounting in naturalistic settings. Further research is needed to determine the optimal intervention characteristics and evaluate its long-term effectiveness across diverse population. www.crd.york.ac.uk CRD420251014181, registered 01/04/2025.

Substance use disorder (SUD) poses significant challenges to public health, the economy, and social safety. Delay discounting (DD) is one form of impulsivity which is a risk factor for SUD and other mental health disorders. Moreover, when faced with immediate rewards, individuals with SUD exhibit increased DD compared to healthy controls. Fortunately, previous studies have shown that EFT, referring to vividly imagining potential future events in specific scenarios based on an individual's current experiences, can effectively reduce DD and substance use in individuals with SUD. In this process, the potential regulatory mechanism of EFT may involve extending the temporal window and decreasing the construal level of future events. Most promising avenues to pursue in future studies may include manipulating participants' factors (e.g., sample size, adherence to diagnostic criteria, comorbidity with other mental diseases), conducting longitudinal studies and exploring the neural regulatory mechanisms of EFT on DD among individuals with SUD. Further research should also examine the effects of both positive and negative emotional valence in EFT interventions to determine how different types of future thinking influence impulsivity and decision-making. This would help us develop more applicable theoretical models and improve the effectiveness of EFT in intervening with SUD.

and behavioral economics, George Ainslie points out that addiction can be cast as an intertemporal prisoner's dilemma problem between the present and In game theory, the prisoner's dilemma is a thought experiment involving two rational agents, each of whom can either cooperate for mutual benefit or betray their partner ("defect") for individual gain. The dilemma arises from the fact that while defecting is rational for each agent, cooperation yields a higher payoff for each. The puzzle was designed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher in 1950 du In game theory, the prisoner's dilemma is a thought experiment involving two rational agents, each of whom can either cooperate for mutual benefit or betray their partner ("defect") for individual gain. The dilemma arises from the fact that while defecting is rational for each agent, cooperation yields a higher payoff for each. The puzzle was designed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher in 1950 during their work at the RAND Corporation. They… The structure of the traditional prisoner's dilemma can be generalized from its original prisoner setting. Suppose that the two players are represented by the colors red and blue and that each player chooses to either "cooperate" or "defect". If both players cooperate, they both receive the reward R {\displaystyle R} for cooperating. If both players defect, they both receive the punishment payoff P {\displaystyle P} . If Blue defects while Red cooperates, then Blue receives the temptation payoff T {\displaystyle T} , while Red receives the "sucker's" payoff, S {\displaystyle S} . Similarly, if Blue cooperates while Red defects, then Blue receives the sucker's payoff S {\displaystyle S} , while Red receives the temptation payoff T {\displaystyle T} . This can be expressed in normal form: Nice… Two people meet and exchange closed bags, with the understanding that one of them contains money, and the other contains a purchase. Either player can choose to honor the deal by putting into his or her bag what he or she agreed, or he or she can defect by handing over an empty bag. In coordination games, players must coordinate their strategies for a good outcome. An example is two cars that abruptly meet in a blizzard; each must choose whether to swerve left or right. If both swerve left, or both right, the cars do not collide. The local left- and right-hand traffic convention helps to co-ordinate their actions. Symmetrical co-ordination games include Stag hunt and Bach or Stravinsky.