We revisit the fundamental principles of thermodynamic equilibrium in relation to heat transfer processes within the Earth’s atmosphere. A knowledge of equilibrium states at ambient temperatures (T) and pressures (p) and deviations for these p-T states due to various transport ‘forces’ and flux events give rise to gradients (dT/dz) and (dp/dz) of height z throughout the atmosphere. Fluctuations about these troposphere averages determine weather and climates. Concentric and time-span average values <T> (z, Δt)) and its gradients known as the lapse rate = d < T(z) >/dz have hitherto been assumed in climate models to be determined by a closed, reversible, and adiabatic expansion process against the constant gravitational force of acceleration (g). Thermodynamics tells us nothing about the process mechanisms, but adiabatic-expansion hypothesis is deemed in climate computer models to be convection rather than conduction or radiation. This prevailing climate modelling hypothesis violates the 2nd law of thermodynamics. This idealized hypothetical process cannot be the causal explanation of the experimentally observed mean lapse rate (approx.−6.5 K/km) in the troposphere. Rather, the troposphere lapse rate is primarily determined by the radiation heat-transfer processes between black-body or IR emissivity and IR and sunlight absorption. When the effect of transducer gases (H2O and CO2) is added to the Earth’s emission radiation balance in a 1D-2level primitive model, a linear lapse rate is obtained. This rigorous result for a perturbing cooling effect of transducer (‘greenhouse’) gases on an otherwise sunlight-transducer gas-free troposphere has profound implications. One corollary is the conclusion that increasing the concentration of an existing weak transducer, i.e., CO2, could only have a net cooling effect, if any, on the concentric average <T> (z = 0) at sea level and lower troposphere (z < 1 km). A more plausible explanation of global warming is the enthalpy emission ’footprint’ of all fuels, including nuclear.

Moist air is lighter than dry air, so it rises into the atmosphere. It doesn't mix with the surrounding air and forms clouds.[4] Water vapour is invisible, but as the air rises, it cools to its dew point through a process called adiabatic cooling.[5] Atmospheric pressure decreases with altitude, so the rising air expands and cools, causing water vapour to condense into clouds.[6] Water vapour is attracted to dust or smoke particles in the air to form small droplets that may collide to form larger droplets, which fall as precipitation when they are heavy enough.[7] In addition to adiabatic cooling, other processes that cause air to rise and cool to its dew point include frontal and cyclonic lift,[8] convective lift,[9] and orographic lift.[9] Non-adiabatic cooling Other mechanisms that lower the temperature of the air to its dew point occur near the surface and cause fog to form.[10] Conductive cooling happens when warmer air comes into contact with a colder surface, as when warmer air from the sea moves across a colder land area.

Impact of Annular Solar Eclipse on the Trace Gases and Dynamics of the Lower and Middle Atmosphere: Results Inferred From an Integrated Campaign “Suryagrahan‐2019” Abstract An integrated campaign “Suryagrahan‐2019” with multi‐institutional support was conducted by launching a series of radiosondes/ozonesondes over 6‐different locations in India along with the operation of ST/MST radars and launching of RH‐200 rockets during the annular solar eclipse of 26 December 2019. We present the eclipse‐induced changes in the thermal structure, dynamics and trace gases in the lower and middle atmosphere. One of the novel findings is the formation of three step‐like isothermal structures in the lower stratosphere with a layer height of 1.4, 2.5, and 4 km, which is attributed to the adiabatic compression and expansion of the air parcel. These structures have both warming and cooling effect of the order of ±6 K. A significant increase of ozone by 20% in post‐eclipse scenario between 29 and 32 km is observed over Cochin.

1), which is taken from a memoir on the equations of motion by Joseph Cottier, published in the U.S. Monthly Weather Review for July 1897. The diminution of pressure with altitude, as shown in this diagram for average conditions, but not for the temporary conditions that continually occur, follows a logarithmic law, and can undoubtedly be extended upwards for the normal atmosphere only to a height of 20 or 30 m., owing to our uncertainty as to the actual conditions in the upper portions of the atmosphere. This diagram is based upon the assumption that the atmosphere is in a state of convective equilibrium such that the ascending and descending masses expand and cool as they ascend, or contract and warm up as they descend, nearly but not quite in accordance with the adiabatic law of the change of temperature in pure gases. The departure of atmospheric temperatures from the strictly adiabatic law, as shown by Cottier, is undoubtedly due largely to the heat absorbed by and radiated from moist or hazy or dusty air. In 1890, Abbe showed that a very moderate rate of radiation from the atmosphere suffices to explain the coolness of slowly descending air.