To save energy, the European directives from the Eco-design of Energy Using Products (2005/32/CE) have recommended the replacement of incandescent lamps by more economic devices such as Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs). However, the emission spectrum of these devices is enriched in blue radiations, known to be potentially dangerous to the retina. Recent studies showed that light exposure contributes to the onset of early stages of age-related macular degeneration (AMD). Here, we investigate, in albinos and pigmented rats, the effects of different exposure protocols. Twenty-four hours exposure at high luminance was compared to a cyclic (dark/light) exposure at domestic levels for 1week and 1month, using different LEDs (Cold-white, blue and green), as well as fluorocompact bulbs and fluorescent tubes. The data suggest that the blue component of the white-LED may cause retinal toxicity at occupational domestic illuminance and not only in extreme experimental conditions, as previously reported. It is important to note that the current regulations and standards have been established on the basis of acute light exposure and do not take into account the effects of repeated exposure.

In general terms, lighting research has been focused in the development of artificial light with the purpose of saving energy and having more durable lamps. However, the consequences that artificial night lighting could bring to the human being and living organisms have become an important issue recently. Light pollution represents a significant problem to both the environment and human health causing a disruption of biological rhythms related not only to the visible spectrum, but also to other parts of the electromagnetic spectrum. Since the lamps emit across a wide range of the electromagnet

icate daylight, but should provide soft lighting for security and safety. Motorways might require brighter lighting than residential roads as well. The blueness of an optical radiation source like LEDs is often measured by its correlated colour temperature (CCT). The higher the CCT, the more blue-rich it is and the harsher and brighter it appears. However, this metric can provide misleading results for some LED sources. As good lighting practice, high luminance LED lights should be diffused or shielded from being looked at directly to avoid glare. Some LED street lights have exposed LED elements that can be seen by road users within their normal field of view, such as when they are looking ahead. This may make viewers instinctively look away from the light source if it is too bright or have difficulty seeing the area near the light source. Vehicle LED lights, particularly daylight running lights and headlights, can be a source of glare. They might also produce more glare when it is foggy. Glare occurs when light is scattered in the eye and it is more common when light sources emit high levels of blue light. This may make it difficult to see things that are near to the light source, especially for older eyes. When glare is so intense that vision is completely impaired, it is sometimes called disabling glare. 3.3. Are vulnerable groups like children and the elderly at any increased risk? Children have a higher sensitivity to blue light and although emissions may not be harmful, light from blue-emitting LEDs may be very dazzling for young children. Some LED emission spectra may cause light-induced retina damage, which is a concern especially for children below about three years of age. There is, however, a European standard for electronic toys that limits the emission of optical radiation from toys. Adolescents and teens in general are exposed to LED lights sources for long periods of time, spending time on their phones, tablets and computers, and they may also be expo

<h4>Purpose</h4>The purpose of this study was to determine transmission of red and violet light through ocular tissues, providing insight into how much light from light-based myopia control instruments reaches each tissue.<h4>Methods</h4>Fresh porcine eyes (n = 5, axial length = 22.40 ± 1.52 mm) were dissected to isolate the cornea, lens, retina, retinal pigment epithelium (RPE)/choroid, and sclera. Light transmission was measured for a red laser (654 nm), red light-emitting diodes (LEDs; 660 nm), and violet LEDs (396 nm). Transmission was quantified using a radiometer. Mean transmission values were compared using 1-way ANOVA with Bonferroni post hoc tests.<h4>Results</h4>Corneal, lenticular, and retinal transmission were significantly lower for light emitted from violet LEDs compared with red laser and red LEDs (P < 0.05 for all). Light from the red laser showed reduced retinal transmission relative to the light from the red LEDs (P = 0.03). Power of light incident on the posterior sclera, considering cumulative transmission through the anterior ocular structures, was 1.66 µW (0.6%) for the red laser (with Maxwellian), 0.37 µW (0.6%) for the red laser, 2.79 µW (0.9%) for red LEDs, and 5.85 µW (0.1%) for violet LEDs.<h4>Conclusions</h4>Red light exhibited greater penetration through ocular tissues than violet light. Violet light was more strongly attenuated by the cornea and lens, demonstrating limited retinal delivery. The choroid acted as a major barrier to all light sources.<h4>Translational relevance</h4>Understanding transmission efficiency of red and violet light through ocular tissues is a critical first step in finding a mechanistic link to biological pathways underlying light-mediated myopia control strategies.