Abstract Recent philosophical discussions of self‐knowledge have focused on basic cases: our knowledge of our own thoughts, beliefs, sensations, experiences, preferences, and intentions. Empiricists argue that we acquire this sort of self‐knowledge through inner perception; rationalists assign basic self‐knowledge an even more secure source in reason and conceptual understanding. I try to split the difference. Although our knowledge of our own beliefs and thoughts is conceptually insured, our knowledge of our experiences is relevantly like our perceptual knowledge of the external world.

Epistemology, commonly understood as the theory of knowledge, occupies a central position in Islamic intellectual tradition, where human reason and sensory perception are acknowledged as legitimate means of acquiring knowledge, albeit within inherent limitations. This article aims to examine Islamic epistemology through an integrated ontological and axiological perspective, focusing on how sources of knowledge are conceptualized and function within Islamic philosophy. Employing a philosophical-analytical approach, the study explores the structural frameworks of Islamic epistemology—namely bayani, irfani, and burhani—and situates them within broader discussions of ontology and axiology. The findings demonstrate that Islamic epistemology does not treat revelation, reason, and empirical experience as competing sources, but as complementary foundations of knowledge. Ontologically, Islamic thought positions God as the ultimate source of value, while humans function as moral agents entrusted with stewardship grounded in the principle of tawhid. Axiologically, knowledge is viewed as inherently value-laden, serving ethical, spiritual, and civilizational purposes. This study argues that such an integrated epistemological framework enables Islamic thought to bridge moral values and modern scientific inquiry while contributing to the formation of a holistic conception of human knowledge.

familiarity through experience. Epistemologists study the concepts of belief, truth, and justification to understand the nature of knowledge. To discover Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that examines the nature, origin, and limits of knowledge. Also called the theory of knowledge, it explores different types of knowledge, such as propositional knowledge about facts, practical knowledge in the form of skills, and knowledge by acquaintance as a familiarity through experience. Epistemologists study the concepts of belief, truth, and justifica The debate between empiricism and rationalism centers on the origins of human knowledge. Empiricism emphasizes that sense experience is the primary source of all knowledge. Some empiricists illustrate this view by describing the mind as a blank slate that only develops ideas about the external world through the sense data received from the sensory organs. According to them, the mind can attain various additional insights by comparing impressions, combining them, generalizing to form more abstract ideas, and deducing new conclusions from them. Empiricists say that all these mental operations depend on sensory material and do not function on their own. Even though rationalists usually accept sense experience as one source of knowledge, they argue that certain forms of knowledge are directly accessed through reason without sense experience, like knowledge of mathematical and logical truths. Some forms of rationalism state that the mind possesses inborn ideas, accessible without sensory assistance. Others assert that there is an additional cognitive faculty, sometimes called rational intuition, through which people acquire nonempirical knowledge. Some rationalists limit their discussion to the origin of concepts, saying that the mind relies on inborn categories to understand the world and organize experience.

other ways of acquiring knowledge", often in contrast to other possible sources of knowledge such as faith, tradition, or sensory experience. More formally In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "the position that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge", often in contrast to other possible sources of knowledge such as faith, tradition, or sensory experience. More formally, rationalism is defined as a methodology or a theory "in which the criterio In philosophy, rationalism is the epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "the position that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge", often in contrast to other possible sources of knowledge such as faith, tradition, or sensory experience. More formally, rationalism is defined as a methodology or a theory "in which the criterion of truth is not sensory but intellectual and deductive". In a major philosophical debate during the Enlightenment, rationalism (sometimes here equated with innatism) was opposed to empiricism. On the one hand, rationalists like René Descartes emphasized that knowledge is primarily innate and the intellect, the inner faculty of the human mind, can therefore directly grasp or derive logical truths; on the other hand, empiricists like John Locke emphasized that… Descartes…

Mulla Sadra name the Islamic philosophy the al-Hikmah al-Muta'aliah. According to him, al-hikmah al-muta'aliah is the knowledge which is based on an intellectual intuition (irfani or isyraq dzawq), rational proof ('aql or istidlal), and the shari'ah (burhany). Al-Hikmah al Muta'āliyyah is a synthesis of three mode of thinking, namely: theology with character polemical dialectical (Jaddaly), philosophy with the character of demonstrative (burhany), theosofy with the illuminastic and gnostic character (dhawq). This all elements are derived from the Koran, and Hadith. Human‟s knowledge is divided into two: husuly science and hudhury science. Husuly science (acquired), knowledge gained through ilham (inspiration), al-kasyf (unveiling) and al-hads (intuition). Science hudlury (innate) covers about perception which, according to Mulla Sadra it was identified as an act which refers to the sensation, thus the perception is the designation for the deeds done by any soul to know the object of knowledge, both physical and non physical. He divides perception into four levels; sensory perception (al-Hiss), imajinal (al-khayal), intuition senses (wahm), intelegency (ta'aqqul). Intelegency as the highest level is based upon the degree achievement (tajarud) with the cosmos, while the sensory perception is the lowest level. The term tajarud is actually ascribed to Allah as a Being Payers (wajib al-wujud) who do not have an attachment to anything else but Himself. God‟s knowledge is objective

that the source of knowledge is that of experience and no knowledge is innate or a priori … is fallible, knowledge is infallible; belief is uncertain, but knowledge is certain because … believed knowledge is not itself sensory but is al- ways occasioned by sensory experience. For

Abstract Issue Avicenna presented his "flying man" or "floating man" argument as a means to establish the existence of the soul, its immaterial nature, and its distinctiveness from the body. While originally conceived with an ontological focus, subsequent scholars have often employed this concept in an epistemological context, asserting that Avicenna’s flying man not only exists, but also knows that he exists. Such an interpretation of the flying man argument seems to be at odds with his own principles, his passages throughout his works, and what he pursued to establish through this scenario. Method Deploying a descriptive and analytical method, it may be said that Findings: Avicenna believes that perception begins from senses, and the first stage of the human reason is material or hylic reason or pure potentiality. Moreover, there is a difference between consciousness (shuʿūr) that is actually obtained by humans since the beginning of their existence and consciousness of consciousness (al-shuʿūr bi-l-shuʿūr), which he believes to be a potential character that needs to be acquired, while our primary consciousness of the soul is the existence of our soul. Thus, the flying man is solely the existence and presence of the soul before any actual consciousness. Results In view of the fact that man was suspended in space at the beginning of his creation and Ibn Sina considers the human soul to be the event of the body and in the order of the beast intellect and pure power, which lac

of experience and level of knowledge. Nevertheless, the sum total of an individual’s knowledge is an … stage. The cognitive form of knowledge is thereby tied to how that knowledge is constructed over time. I … by means other than direct sensory experience and introspection. Knowledge is often acquired from verbal