High testosterone levels correlate with a weakened immune system
While many experimental studies in birds and mammals support the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis by showing that testosterone can suppress certain immune measures, other research highlights that these effects are highly context-dependent, variable across species, and sometimes contradicted by natural observations.
The retrieved literature shows a split in findings. Several experimental studies (e.g., [0], [1], [3], [8], [11]) support the idea that testosterone can suppress immune function or increase parasite/pathogen vulnerability. However, a significant body of work (e.g., [2], [4], [6], [9]) argues that the relationship is far more complex, context-dependent (varying by temperature, parasite type, or host species), or potentially confounded by alternative physiological mechanisms like immunoredistribution, leading to a CONTESTED verdict.
The evidence we hold leans leans supported
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official record 3x · fact-check 2x · hedged 1x · crowd & reference 1x
- Testosterone and oxidative stress: the oxidation handicap hy · peer-reviewed · supports · weight 2 · 2006
- Testosterone treatment is immunosuppressive in superb fairy– · peer-reviewed · supports · weight 2 · 2000
- Androgens and the Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesis: Unra · peer-reviewed · supports · weight 2 · 2004
- Testosterone-mediated trade-offs in the old age: a new appro · peer-reviewed · supports · weight 1.6 · 2009
- Energetic reserves, leptin and testosterone: a refinement of · peer-reviewed · supports · weight 1.3 · 2007
- Developing a transcriptomic framework for testing testostero · peer-reviewed · supports · weight 1.05 · 2020
- Complex effects of testosterone level on ectoparasite load i · peer-reviewed · supports · weight 1.05 · 2024
- Maternal Androgens in Dominant Meerkats (<i>Suricata suricat · peer-reviewed · supports · weight 1.05 · 2024
- Stress, testosterone, and the immunoredistribution hypothesi · peer-reviewed · refutes · weight 2 · 1999
- No evidence for the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis in · peer-reviewed · refutes · weight 1.6 · 2018
- Functionally opposing effects of testosterone on two differe · peer-reviewed · refutes · weight 1.6 · 2010
- Associations between testosterone and immune activity in all · peer-reviewed · refutes · weight 1.05 · 2021
Carlos Alonso‐Álvarez, Sophie Bertrand, Bruno Faivre, Olivier Chastel, Gabriele Sorci. Testosterone and oxidative stress: the oxidation handicap hypothesis. 2006. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2006.3764
Experimental elevation of testosterone decreased cell-mediated immunity in zebra finches.
Stanton Braude, Zuleyma Tang‐Martínez, George T. Taylor. Stress, testosterone, and the immunoredistribution hypothesis. 1999. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/10.3.345
Argues that the foundational assumption of testosterone-induced immunosuppression is flawed and proposes an immunoredistribution hypothesis.
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Anne Peters. Testosterone treatment is immunosuppressive in superb fairy–wrens, yet free–living males with high testosterone are more immunocompetent. 2000. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2000.1085
Testosterone treatment decreased the likelihood of a primary antibody response in captive superb fairy-wrens.
Noah T. Owen–Ashley, Dennis Hasselquist, John C. Wingfield. Androgens and the Immunocompetence Handicap Hypothesis: Unraveling Direct and Indirect Pathways of Immunosuppression in Song Sparrows. 2004. https://doi.org/10.1086/423714
Testosterone implants suppressed both cell-mediated and humoral immune responses in song sparrows.
Carlos Alonso‐Álvarez, Lorenzo Pérez‐Rodríguez, Jesús T. García, Javier Viñuela. Testosterone-mediated trade-offs in the old age: a new approach to the immunocompetence handicap and carotenoid-based sexual signalling. 2009. https://doi.org/10.1098/rspb.2008.1891
Old male red-legged partridges exhibited increased immunosuppression when treated with testosterone.
C Alonso-Alvarez, S Bertrand, G Sorci. Energetic reserves, leptin and testosterone: a refinement of the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis. 2007. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2007.0020
Leptin administration attenuated testosterone-induced immunosuppression in zebra finches, supporting the trade-off model.
Newhouse DJ, Vernasco BJ. Developing a transcriptomic framework for testing testosterone-mediated handicap hypotheses.. 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ygcen.2020.113577
Transcriptomic reanalysis of bird studies revealed conserved molecular signatures of immunosuppression following testosterone treatment.
Wang LQ, Liu ZT, Wang JJ, Fang YH, Zhu H, Shi K, Zhang FS, Shuai LY. Complex effects of testosterone level on ectoparasite load in a ground squirrel: an experimental test for the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis.. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13071-024-06261-1
Male ground squirrels with experimentally increased testosterone exhibited higher tick loads.
Smyth-Kabay KN, Caruso NM, Stonehill AC, Clutton-Brock TH, Drea CM. Maternal Androgens in Dominant Meerkats (<i>Suricata suricatta</i>) Reduce Juvenile Offspring Health and Survivorship.. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1002/ece3.70600
High prenatal androgen exposure in meerkats resulted in increased juvenile parasitism and decreased immunocompetence.
Judyta Nowak, Bogusław Pawłowski, Barbara Borkowska, Daria Augustyniak, Zuzanna Drulis‐Kawa. No evidence for the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis in male humans. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-25694-0
Found that free testosterone levels were positively correlated with influenza post-vaccination response in healthy human males.
Matthew J. Fuxjager, Johannes Foufopoulos, Ramon Diaz‐Uriarte, Catherine A. Marler. Functionally opposing effects of testosterone on two different types of parasite: implications for the immunocompetence handicap hypothesis. 2010. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2435.2010.01784.x
Demonstrated that testosterone has functionally distinct and opposing effects on different parasite species rather than causing a general immunosuppression.
LaVere AA, Hamlin HJ, Lowers RH, Parrott BB, Ezenwa VO. Associations between testosterone and immune activity in alligators depend on bacteria species and temperature. 2021. https://doi.org/10.1111/1365-2435.13756
Found that testosterone-mediated immunosuppression in alligators depends heavily on temperature and specific bacterial species.
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