The retrieved evidence discusses behavioral models, appetitive conditioning involving sexual stimuli, and case studies applying conditioning principles to sexual arousals, but lacks comprehensive proof that all fetishes universally develop through classical conditioning.
Although mechanisms of mate preference are thought to be relatively hard-wired, experience with appetitive and consummatory sexual reward has been shown to condition preferences for partner related cues and even objects that predict sexual reward. Here, we reviewed evidence from laboratory species and humans on sexually conditioned place, partner, and ejaculatory preferences in males and females, as well as the neurochemical, molecular, and epigenetic mechanisms putatively responsible. From a comprehensive review of the available data, we concluded that opioid transmission at μ opioid receptors forms the basis of sexual pleasure and reward, which then sensitizes dopamine, oxytocin, and vasopressin systems responsible for attention, arousal, and bonding, leading to cortical activation that creates awareness of attraction and desire. First experiences with sexual reward states follow a pattern of sexual imprinting, during which partner- and/or object-related cues become crystallized by conditioning into idiosyncratic "types" that are found sexually attractive and arousing. These mechanisms tie reward and reproduction together, blending proximate and ultimate causality in the maintenance of variability within a species.
Appetitive conditioning plays an important role in the development and maintenance of pornography-use and gaming disorders. It is assumed that primary and secondary reinforcers are involved in these processes. Despite the common use of pornography and gaming in the general population appetitive conditioning processes in this context are still not well studied. This study aims to compare appetitive conditioning processes using primary (pornographic) and secondary (monetary and gaming-related) rewards as unconditioned stimuli (UCS) in the general population. Additionally, it investigates the conditioning processes with gaming-related stimuli as this type of UCS was not used in previous studies. Thirty-one subjects participated in a differential conditioning procedure in which four geometric symbols were paired with either pornographic, monetary, or gaming-related rewards or with nothing to become conditioned stimuli (CS + <sub>porn</sub>, CS + <sub>game</sub>, CS + <sub>money</sub>, and CS-) in an functional magnetic resonance imaging study. We observed elevated arousal and valence ratings as well as skin conductance responses for each CS+ condition compared to the CS-. On the neural level, we found activations during the presentation of the CS + <sub>porn</sub> in the bilateral nucleus accumbens, right medial orbitofrontal cortex, and the right ventral anterior cingulate cortex compared to the CS-, but no significant activations during CS + <sub>money</sub> and CS + <sub>game</sub> compared to the CS-. These results indicate that different processes emerge depending on whether primary and secondary rewards are presented separately or together in the same experimental paradigm. Additionally, monetary and gaming-related stimuli seem to have a lower appetitive value than pornographic rewards.
Despite the common use of pornography and gaming in the general population appetitive conditioning processes in this context are still not well studied. This study aims to compare appetitive conditioning processes using primary (pornographic) and secondary (monetary and gaming‐related) rewards as unconditioned stimuli (UCS) in the general population. Additionally, it investigates the conditioning processes with gaming‐related stimuli as this type of UCS was not used in previous studies.
Thirty‐one subjects participated in a differential conditioning procedure in which four geometric symbols were paired with either pornographic, monetary, or gaming‐related rewards or with nothing to become conditioned stimuli (CS + porn , CS + game , CS + money , and CS−) in an functional magnetic resonance imaging study. We observed elevated arousal and valence ratings as well as skin conductance responses for each CS+ condition compared to the CS−.
INTRODUCTION Appetitive conditioning is a process through which new rewards and their motivational salience are learned (Martin‐Soelch et al., 2007 ). During this process, a neutral stimulus (CS+) becomes associated with a rewarding unconditioned stimulus (UCS) to elicit conditioned responses (CRs), such as elevated valence and arousal ratings (Blechert et al., 2016 ; De Houwer et al., 2001 ; Tapia León et al., 2018 ), skin conductance response (SCR) (Andreatta & Pauli, 2015 ) and blood‐oxygen‐level‐dependent responses (BOLD) to the CS+ (Kirsch et al., 2003 ).
However, we believe that pornographic stimuli better reflect the reward aspect of pornography consumption than erotic stimuli. This study examines different kinds of CR: (1) subjective ratings, (2) SCR, and (3) neural substrates of classical appetitive conditioning processes with monetary, pornographic, and gaming‐related stimuli, focusing on the anticipation phase.
The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the local ethics committee of the University of Siegen. All participants gave written informed consent to participate. 2.2. Procedure The classical conditioning procedure was part of a larger national project on internet‐use disorders (Brand et al., 2021 ). Before the experiment, participants completed questionnaires and various behavioral tests outside of the MRI (not reported here).
Conditioning procedure The acquisition phase of the classical conditioning paradigm consisted of 68 trials and lasted approximately 27 minutes. Geometric figures (three quarters of a white circle) were used as four types of CS: CS + porn , CS + game , CS + money , and CS−. While the presentation of CS+ was followed by a UCS in 62.5% of the time, the CS− was never followed by any UCS. Each trial began with the presentation of a fixation cross for 0–2.5 s. The presentation of each CS lasted 8 s, and each UCS lasted 2.5 s, followed by an intertrial interval jittered between 8.5 and 11.5 s (see Figure 1 for the order of trial events). FIGURE 1 The design of the appetitive conditioning task.
Overall, these results are mostly consistent with our hypotheses. We will discuss these results, considering our main research questions. 4.1. Pornographic stimuli The results of the present study confirm and extend findings of previous studies (Klucken et al., 2009 ; Liberg et al., 2022 ; Markert et al., 2021 ; Stark et al., 2019 ), showing activation in reward circuitry (in bilateral NAcc, right mOFC, and right vACC) during conditioning processes with pornographic rewards.
Notably, there were no increased activations in brain areas, usually involved in appetitive conditioning during the presentation of CS + money and CS + game compared to CS−. These fMRI results of CS + money compared to CS− contradict previous studies, which show
For example, one study showed no differences at the neural level in the conditioning processes with pornographic material between sexes (Stark et al., 2019 ), while another study found differences (Klucken et al., 2009 ). It is unclear if the brain responses would be different in a female sample using a paradigm with different stimuli besides pornographic ones.
Summation of arousal in partial fetishism.
A summation model of classical conditioning was used to describe the deviant sexual arousal pattern of a male psychiatric patient. Penile assessment showed a response to a compound stimulus (radio static plus a picture of a woman) that was approximately equal to the sum of the responses to each component alone. The subject's self-report of sexual arousal followed a similar pattern. A distinction was made between total and partial fetishism. It was suggested that what may be particularly troublesome in partial fetishism is the potential for high levels of summated arousal.
Published in Journal of behavior therapy and experimental psychiatry (1988)
The clinical and forensic psychiatric issues of retifism.
The literature on the etiological theories, clinical manifestations and treatment of retifism (foot fetishism) and fetishisms in general are briefly reviewed. The case of a 27 year old married male foot-fetishist is presented with emphasis on the psychosexual development leading to the specific sexual deviation. The specific behavioural treatment consisted of covert aversive conditioning using self-reports of sexual urges and psychophysiological monitoring as objective measures of therapeutic change. The theoretical basis for the therapeutic response is discussed.
Published in Canadian journal of psychiatry. Revue canadienne de psychiatrie (1988)