Figs (Ficus spp., Moraceae) and their pollinating wasps (Agaonidae, Chalcidoidea) constitute perhaps the most tightly integrated pollination mutualism that is known. Figs are characterized by extraordinarily high global and local species diversity. It has been proposed that the diversification of this mutualism has occurred through strict-sense coadaptation and cospeciation between pairs of fig and wasp species that are associated in highly specific one-to-one relationships. However, existing studies cast doubt on the generality of this proposition. Here, we review our current knowledge of the evolutionary history of the fig/fig-wasp mutualism. We critically examine the idea that codivergence between figs and their pollinators has been dominated by strict-sense cospeciation. We present phylogenetic and population genetic data from neotropical fig and fig wasp species that suggest that a more accurate model for diversification in this mutualism is that of groups of genetically well defined wasp species coevolving with genetically less well defined (frequently hybridizing) groups of figs. Last, we use our results to assess previously proposed hypotheses on models of speciation in this mutualism.

Abstract Fig tree–fig wasp mutualisms are diverse and underpin much biodiversity. The wasps (Agaonidae) are the sole pollinators of the trees (Ficus). Figs are enclosed inflorescences, each of which contains many small flowers. Female wasps (foundresses) enter receptive figs to spread pollen and to lay their eggs individually into fig flowers. As they oviposit, wasps also inject chemicals that transform individual flower ovaries into galls that will feed and house wasp offspring. For fig tree–fig wasp mutualisms to persist, the trees must set seed; therefore, the wasps have both to pollinate and to fail to gall all flower ovaries. However, wasps that avoid pollination costs and/or gall all flowers are predicted to outcompete more cooperative conspecifics, resulting in destabilisation of the mutualism. Here, I review the literature on why wasps pollinate by focusing on how trees reduce investment to unpollinated figs, resulting in ‘sanctions’ to wasps that fail to pollinate via reduced production of offspring. I also review the mechanisms that prevent wasps from galling all flowers, mainly those in monoecious Ficus, that also result in wasps predominantly galling longer flowers whilst leaving shorter flowers to become seeds. I make suggestions for future work and conclude by reaffirming why multiple processes promote stability in fig tree–fig wasp mutualisms.

Abstract The nature inspired algorithms are becoming popular due to their simplicity and wider applicability. In the recent past several such algorithms have been developed. They are mainly bio-inspired, swarm based, physics based and socio-inspired; however, the domain based on symbiotic relation between creatures is still to be explored. A novel metaheuristic optimization algorithm referred to as Fig Tree-Wasp Symbiotic Coevolutionary (FWSC) algorithm is proposed. It models the symbiotic coevolutionary relationship between fig trees and wasps. More specifically, the mating of wasps, pollinating the figs, searching for new trees for pollination and wind effect drifting of wasps are modeled in the algorithm. These phenomena help in balancing the two important aspects of exploring the search space efficiently as well as exploit the promising regions. The algorithm is successfully tested on a variety of test problems. The results are compared with existing methods and algorithms. The Wilcoxon Signed Rank Test and Friedman Test are applied for the statistical validation of the algorithm performance. The algorithm is also further applied to solve the real-world engineering problems. The performance of the FWSC underscored that the algorithm can be applied to wider variety of real-world problems.

laying her eggs, the wasp dies within the fruit. The fig subsequently secretes an enzyme known as ficin, which completely digests the dead insect into the Jain vegetarianism is the mandatory, spiritually motivated diet practiced by the followers of Jainism. Rooted in the foundational principle of ahimsa (nonviolence), it is considered one of the most rigorous dietary frameworks on the Indian subcontinent. The diet strictly prohibits the consumption of meat, fish, eggs, alcoholic beverage, and honey. Furthermore, guided by a complex biological taxono According to Jain texts, a śrāvaka (householder) should not consume the four maha-vigai (the four perversions) – wine, flesh, butter, and honey; and the five udumbara fruits (the five udumbara trees are gular, anjeera, banyan, peepal, and pakar, all belonging to the fig genus). Lastly, Jains should not consume any foods or drinks that have animal products or animal flesh. The prohibition of the five udumbara (fig) trees is deeply rooted in the biological reality of the fruit's development. Traditional figs are not standard fruits, but enclosed inflorescences (syconia) that rely on an obligate mutualistic symbiosis with pollinating fig wasps. To pollinate the internal flowers, a female wasp enters the fruit through a microscopic opening, losing her wings in the process and trapping herself inside. After laying her eggs, the wasp dies within the fruit. The fig subsequently secretes an enzyme known as ficin, which completely digests the dead insect into the fruit's tissues. Because consuming a traditional fig guarantees the ingestion of a digested multi-sensed insect, classical Jain texts explicitly ban the fruit as a severe violation of ahimsa (nonviolence). Jains go out of their way so as not to hurt even small insects and other tiny animals, because they believe that harm caused by carelessness is as reprehensible as harm caused by deliberate action. Hence they take great pains to make sure that no minuscule animals are injured by the preparation of their meals and in the process of eating and drinking. Mushrooms, fungi and yeasts are forbidden because they grow in unhygienic environments and may harbour other life forms. Honey is forbidden, as its collection would amount to violence against the bees.

Fig wasp Fig wasps are wasps of the superfamily Chalcidoidea which spend their larval stage inside figs. Most pollinate the figs, but others simply feed on the plant. The non-pollinators belong to several groups in the superfamily Chalcidoidea. So, the fig wasps are a polyphyletic group: they include several unrelated lineages whose similarities are based upon their shared association with figs. The pollinators are all in the family Agaonidae. They make galls. The other types either make their own galls or use the galls of other fig wasps.[1][2] References - ↑ Boucek Z. 1988. Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera): a biosystematic revision of genera of fourteen families, with a reclassification of species. C.A.B. International, Wallingford, England. 832 pp. - ↑ Cruaud, Astrid and others 2011. Phylogeny and evolution of life-history strategies in the Sycophaginae non-pollinating fig wasps (Hymenoptera, Chalcidoidea). BMC Evolutionary Biology. 11: 178. doi:10.1186/1471-2148-11-178. PMC 3145598. PMID 21696591.