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Empirical studies demonstrate that the English language reflects cultural sexism through lexical and grammatical asymmetry
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Empirical corpus-based studies and textbook analyses demonstrate that spoken and written English exhibits gender-based lexical and grammatical asymmetries as well as stereotypes.

Evidence for · 2
2025 · cited by 3
Gender constitutes a central variable in studies of language variation, as it both reflects and challenges prevailing conceptions of how men and women are socialized into distinct conversational styles. The present study examines gender-related differences in spoken American English through an analysis of the Switchboard Dialogue Act Corpus, a large dataset comprising 1155 spontaneous telephone conversations involving 1058 male and 1252 female speakers. Grounded in variationist sociolinguistics, a corpus-based quantitative approach was employed to identify gender-related patterns across lexical, grammatical, and pragmatic dimensions. The analysis revealed that women produced significantly more turns and utterances, whereas men produced longer utterances and lexical items. Lexically, both genders shared most vocabulary, though notable contrasts emerged: men more frequently used uh, while women preferred um; women also employed we and family-related terms more often, whereas men used wife with higher frequency. Grammatically, men showed a preference for nouns, numerals, and determiners, while women favored pronouns, verbs, and the to-infinitive form. Pragmatically, men tended to use statement-opinion, whereas women were more inclined toward statement-non-opinion. Contrary to earlier claims, no significant gender difference was observed in the use of tag questions. These findings demonstrate that gender differences in spoken language are real yet subtle, highly context-dependent, and best captured through large-scale corpus evidence rather than through stereotypical assumptions or broad generalizations.
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rails:sufficiency:supported:single_source:for=1+1p:against=0+0p | v55:sufficiency

More for · 1
2020 · cited by 0
Despite the existence of many studies into gender representation in language textbooks, little work reports the representation of female characters in language textbooks situated in such social contexts as family, occupations, school participation and achievement, and hobbies and interests. To fill this empirical gap, the present critical discourse study investigates the visibility of female characters in the two government-mandated English language textbooks used in Indonesian junior high schools. Findings show that although the textbook writers demonstrate an awareness of gender equality and responsiveness, male and female-dominated stereotypes are still encapsulated in the English language textbooks. This empirical evidence suggests that language textbook designers should be fully aware of gender issues when writing language textbooks. This is because language textbooks teach not merely language areas/skills but also knowledge and values, such as gender(ness).
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  1. Female Representation in Government-Mandated English Language Textbooks Used in Indonesian Junior High Schoolspeer-reviewedno side taken
  2. Gendered language in telephone conversations: a corpus-based study of lexical, grammatical, and pragmatic variationpeer-reviewedno side taken
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