Functional ingredients such as dietary fibers, probiotics and prebiotics, polyphenols, omega-3 fatty acids, and bioactive peptides are increasingly central to food systems that aim to deliver health benefits beyond basic nutrition. This review explores how molecular structure, physicochemical properties, metabolism, and microbiome interactions affect bioactivity and bioavailability. We highlight advances in green extraction, encapsulation technologies, and 3D/4D printing that enhance the stability and targeted delivery of bioactives. AI-enabled tools for ingredient discovery, structure-activity modeling, and personalized formulation are also discussed. Sensory research and market insights inform strategies to improve consumer acceptance, while clinical studies provide evidence for cardiometabolic, immune, and cognitive benefits. Safety and regulatory aspects are addressed, particularly for emerging proteins and delivery systems. By integrating scientific and technological developments across disciplines, this review provides a comprehensive foundation for future research and commercialization of safe, effective, and personalized functional food products. Sensory research and market insights inform strategies to improve consumer acceptance, while clinical studies provide evidence for cardiometabolic, immune, and cognitive benefits. Safety and regulatory aspects are addressed, particularly for emerging proteins and delivery systems. By integrating scientific and technological developments across disciplines, this review provides a comprehensive foundation for future research and commercialization of safe, effective, and personalized functional food products. Studies have explored the co-delivery of lactoferrin (LF) with various polyphenols; for instance, curcumin-LF nanoparticles were developed for potential nose-to-brain targeted delivery with neuroprotective effects [ 75 ], and LF-EGCG conjugation protected emulsified algae oil from aggregation and oxidation [ 76 ]. The combination of cranberry polyphenols and DHA/EPA significantly improves blood glucose levels and periodontal indices in patients with diabetic periodontitis [ 77 ]. Process innovation ensures the extraction and incorporation of functional ingredients into meat, dairy, beverages, plant-based snacks, and gel systems without compromising nutritional or sensory qualities. Innovative products such as propolis gum and peptide-enriched dairy products/beverages combine scientific validation with consumer demand for clean labels and functional foods. Engineering colloids and the smallest processed plant-based beverages address formulation challenges while preserving biological activity. Research indicates that encapsulating antimicrobial peptides and antihypertensive peptides helps preserve their structural integrity and functionality [ 108 ]. For example, nanoliposomes enriched with α-tocopherol were used to co-encapsulate EPA and DHA, enhancing physical stability and achieving high encapsulation efficiencies [ 109 ]. Nanoliposomes are one of the most promising encapsulation technologies in the field of food nanotechnology, with the potential to improve the delivery efficiency and bioavailability of functional ingredients [ 110 ]. Driven by principles of green chemistry and sustainability, alongside the demand for foods enriched with high-quality bioactive components, advanced extraction technologies have been developed [ 122 ]. These include ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE), microwave-assisted extraction (MAE), enzyme-assisted extraction (EAE), pressurized liquid extraction (PLE), and subcritical/supercritical fluid extraction (SFE) [ 123 , 124 ]. UAE and MAE are among the most widely adopted emerging techniques. AI-Assisted Screening and Design of Functional Ingredients Artificial intelligence (AI) is broadly defined as computer systems that solve complex problems by simulating cognitive processes through algorithms [ 148 ]. Modern AI understands the mechanisms of intelligence to create systems that can simulate reasoning, utilize large knowledge bases, and continuously learn Traditional challenges such as poor solubility, low absorption, and instability of bioactives are being addressed through approaches like green extraction techniques, micro- and nano-encapsulation, and excipient foods designed to improve delivery and protect sensitive compounds. Innovations such as fermentation and micronization enhance the release of bound phytochemicals, while nano-vesicular carriers and 3D/4D food printing allow for targeted release and personalized textures, expanding applications for clinical, elderly, and pediatric nutrition. A cross-sectional survey of 3722 adults from ten countries (Brazil, China, France, Germany, Ghana, India, Japan, Mexico, Turkey, and the USA) identified nine distinct food culture clusters, mostly aligned with national boundaries; each cluster exhibits a unique blend of traditional and modern eating habits, with greater variation in traditional practices, underscoring how cultural identity shapes dietary structures and why nutritional interventions must be culturally adaptive [ 169 ]. Studies on diets enriched with marine omega-3s (EPA/DHA) and polyphenols show impacts on lipoprotein metabolism and atherosclerosis markers in high-risk groups, including reduced postprandial lipids in large VLDL, increased IDL cholesterol, triglyceride-enriched LDL, and decreased HDL triglycerides. These interventions also lower oxidative stress (via urinary 8-isoprostanes), improve glucose homeostasis (polyphenol-driven blood glucose reduction and moderated insulin), alter gut hormones (omega-3-reduced GLP-1), and remodel lipids (HDL phospholipid changes as early biomarkers). By conducting interdisciplinary research and implementing evidence-based commercialization, these gaps can be bridged, which will drive functional foods to improve global public health, reduce medical costs and promote sustainable production.

synthesized naturally and must be obtained from the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids that support brain development and function are alpha-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic Cat intelligence refers to a cat’s ability to solve problems, adapt to its environment, learn new behaviors, and communicate its needs. Structurally, a cat’s brain shares similarities with the human brain, containing around 250 million neurons in the cerebral cortex, which is responsible for complex processing. Cats display neuroplasticity, allowing their brains to reorganize based on experiences. A cognitive support diet for felines is a food that is formulated with the aim of improving mental processes like attention, short and long-term memory, learning, and problem solving. There is currently no strong evidence that such diets are effective in improving cognitive function. Claims for cognitive support appear on a number of kitten formulations to help with brain development, as well as diets aimed at seniors to help prevent cognitive disorders. These diets typically focus on supplying omega-3 fatty acids, omega-6 fatty acids, taurine, vitamins, and other supporting supplements that are considered to have positive effects on cognition. The omega-3 fatty acids are a key nutrient in cognition for felines. They are essential for felines as they cannot be synthesized naturally and must be obtained from the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids that support brain development and function are alpha-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Fish oils, fish and other marine sources provide a very rich source of DHA and EPA. Alpha-linolenic acid can be acquired from oils and seeds. Omega-6 fatty acids are also often included in feline cognition diets. The important omega-6 fatty acid that plays a role in brain support and cognition is arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid, or AA, is found in animal sources such as meat and eggs. AA is required in cat diets, as felines convert insignificant a A cognitive support diet for felines is a food that is formulated with the aim of improving mental processes like attention, short and long-term memory, learning, and problem solving. There is currently no strong evidence that such diets are effective in improving cognitive function. Claims for cognitive support appear on a number of kitten formulations to help with brain development, as well as diets aimed at seniors to help prevent cognitive disorders. These diets typically focus on supplying omega-3 fatty acids, omega-6 fatty acids, taurine, vitamins, and other supporting supplements that are considered to have positive effects on cognition. The omega-3 fatty acids are a key nutrient in cognition for felines. They are essential for felines as they cannot be synthesized naturally and must be obtained from the diet. Omega-3 fatty acids that support brain development and function are alpha-linolenic acid, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA). Fish oils, fish and other marine sources provide a very rich source of DHA and EPA. Alpha-linolenic acid can be acquired from oils and seeds. Omega-6 fatty acids are also often included in feline cognition diets. The important omega-6 fatty acid that plays a role in brain support and cognition is arachidonic acid. Arachidonic acid, or AA, is found in animal sources such as meat and eggs. AA is required in cat diets, as felines convert insignificant amounts of it from linoleic acid due to the limited enzyme delta-6 desaturase. Like DHA, arachidonic acid is often found in the brain tissues of cats and seems to have a supporting role in brain function. In a 2000 study completed by Contreras et al., it was found that DHA and AA made up 20% of the fatty acids in the mammalian brain. Arachidonic acid makes up high amounts in the membrane of most cells and has many pro-inflammatory actions. Taurine is an amino acid which is essential in cat diets due to their low capacity to synthesize it. Taurine has the ability to cross the blood–brain barrier and plays a role in many neurological functions in the brain, especially in visual development. Without taurine, felines can have an abnormal morphology in the cerebellum and visual cortex. When cats were fed a diet deficient in taurine, this led to a decrease in the concentration of taurine in the retina of the eye. This resulted in deterioration of the photoreceptors, followed by complete blindness. Choline is a water-soluble nutrient that prevents and improves epilepsy and cognitive disorders. Supplementation is part of therapy for cats with seizures and feline cognitive dysfunction, despite this treatment being mostly based on anecdotal evidence and research done on dogs. It is the precursor to nerve chemicals like dopamine and acetylcholine, making it important for proper functioning of the nervous system. Cat intelligence study is mostly from consideration of the domesticated cat. The process of domestication has allowed for closer observation of cat behaviour and in the increased incidence of interspecies communication, and the inherent plasticity of the cat's brain has become apparent as the number of studies in this have increased scientific insight. Changes in the genetic structure of a number of cats have been identified. This is as a consequence of both domestication practises and the activity of breeding, so that the species has undergone genetic evolutionary change due to human selection. This human selection has been coupled with an initial, naturally occurring selective set of cats, possessing characteristics desirable for the sharing of human habitation and living in Neolithic urban environments. Cats' intelligence may have increased during their semi-domestication: urban living may have provided an enriched and stimulating environment requiring novel adaptive behaviours. This scavenging behaviour would only have produced slow changes in evolutionary terms, but such changes would have been comparable to the