The amount of by-products/waste in the fish industry is roughly 50%. Fish bones could be used to produce nanoparticles, which may have potential use in the food industry as a novel calcium source and at the same time, contribute to reduce waste production. The objective of this study was to evaluate the bioavailability of nano-size salmon fish bone particles compared to micro-size salmon fish bone particles, and calcium carbonate. The study was carried out in 21–28-day-old C57BL/6 male mice fed for 21 days with the experimental diets. The groups were as follows: CaCO3 0.5% Ca (CN 0.5); CaCO3 1.0% Ca (CN 1.0); salmon fish bone (SFB) microparticles 0.5% Ca (MP 0.5); SFB microparticles 1.0% Ca (MP 1.0); SFB nanoparticles 0.5% Ca (NP 0.5); and SFB nanoparticles 1.0% Ca (NP 1.0). Calcium bioavailability, defined as the percent calcium in femur showed an increasing trend from CN 0.5 to NP 1.0 group. According to ANCOVA, the greatest Ca content was observed in the NP 1.0 group compared with all groups but NP 0.5. In conclusion, in a murine model, salmon fish bone nanoparticles present higher calcium bioavailability than salmon fish bone microparticles, and both, in turn, have better bioavailability than calcium carbonate.

In 1889 Dr. John Bland-Sutton, a prominent London surgeon, was consulted about fatal rickets in over 20 successive litters of lion cubs born at the London Zoo. He evaluated the diet and found the cause of rickets to be nutritional in origin. He recommended that goat meat with crushed bones and cod-liver oil be added to the lean horsemeat diet of the cubs and their mothers. Rickets were reversed, the cubs survived, and subsequent litters thrived. Thirty years later, in classic controlled studies conducted in puppies and young rats, the definitive role of calcium, phosphate and vitamin D in prevention and therapy of rickets was elucidated. Further studies led to identifying the structural features of vitamin D.Although the Bland-Sutton diet provided calcium and phosphate from bones and vitamins A and D from cod-liver oil, some other benefits of this diet were not recognized. Taurine-conjugated bile salts, necessary for intestinal absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, were provided in the oil cold-pressed from cod liver. Unlike canine and rodent species, felines are unable to synthesize taurine, yet conjugate bile acids exclusively with taurine; hence, it must be provided in the diet. The now famous Bland-Sutton "experiment of nature," fatal rickets in lion cubs, was cured by addition of minerals and vitamin D. Taurine-conjugated bile salts undoubtedly permitted absorption of vitamins A and D, thus preventing the occurrence of metabolic bone disease and rickets. 857 jbiomedsci Journal of Biomedical Science J Biomed Sci BMC PMC2994403 2994403 2994403 20804612 10.1186/1423-0127-17-S1-S36 Metabolic bone disease in lion cubs at the London Zoo in 1889: the original animal model of rickets Chesney Russell W 1 ✉ Hedberg Gail 2 1 Department of Pediatrics, The University of Tennessee Health Science Center, Memphis, Tennesee 38103, USA 2 The San Rickets were reversed, the cubs survived, and subsequent litters thrived. Thirty years later, in classic controlled studies conducted in puppies and young rats, the definitive role of calcium, phosphate and vitamin D in prevention and therapy of rickets was elucidated. Further studies led to identifying the structural features of vitamin D. Although the Bland-Sutton diet provided calcium and phosphate from bones and vitamins A and D from cod-liver oil, some other benefits of this diet were not recognized. Taurine-conjugated bile salts, necessary for intestinal absorption of fat-soluble vitamins, were provided in the oil cold-pressed from cod liver. Park and their team in Baltimore, MD, who studied rats fed restricted diets) that it was discerned that certain fats (cod-liver oil, butter and milk) could reverse the bone histologic and clinical features of rickets [ 2 , 4 , 9 ]. A substance in fat, far more concentrated in cod-liver oil than in butter, was the “antirachitic” factor. McCollum, who ultimately “discovered” vitamin D, was able to show that oxidized cod-liver oil (oxidation destroys vitamin A) still retained this antirachitic factor. John Bland-Sutton, a major figure in British surgery, was consulted and recommended a twice-weekly diet of goat flesh, goat bones and milk for both dams and cubs. He also suggested that the cubs lick cod-liver oil. He chose goat bones because they are softer than those of horses. Oddly, although Bland-Sutton wrote extensively, including his autobiography, he never recounted his experience in the zoo in a full publication. The curative diet was never formally described. There exist some conflicts in accounts of the exact diets fed the dams and cubs [ 4 ]. An obvious interpretation of Bland-Sutton's dietary manipulations is that the cubs were being provided with minerals (calcium and phosphorus) from the goat bones and vitamin D from the cod-liver oil. The initial diet was lean horsemeat, which has an inverse ratio of calcium and phosphorus compared to bone and is devoid of fat. The limited milk intake, which was the main source of calcium and phosphorus in proper ratios, no doubt contributed to the under-mineralization of bones in the cubs [ 2 ]. Thus, lactation failure on the part of the dam was also a huge component of the development of rickets [ 4 ]. Clinical signs from vitamin A-deficient immature lions include incoordination, "star gazing", blindness and intermittent convulsions [ 21 ]. Neurologic dysfunction accompanied by malformation of both the skull and the cervical vertebrae has been described in lions kept in captivity worldwide, and this dysfunction and malformation were most often related to vitamin A deficiency [ 22 ]. When big cats eat whole animals or are given bones they ingest calcium and phosphorus in a ratio of two parts calcium to one part phosphorous. Chunk lean meat has a calcium:phosphorus ratio of 1:15 to 1:30. Great cats deficient in calcium intake can develop osteomalacia; thus, their diets should be fortified with calcium [ 14 ]. It easier for cubs to chew softer bones, such as those of goats, rather than the hard bones of horses [ 4 ]. Cod-liver oil is replete with vitamin A and D, with a conventional value of 4000 to 5000 IU of A and 400 to 500 IU of D per teaspoonful (5 ml) [ 23 ]. However, in order to be utilized these fat-soluble vitamins must be absorbed from the intestine. Bile salts are essential in this biologic phenomenon. Cod-liver oil contains bile acids and, indeed, some bile salts. In trying to save rachitic lion cubs, Bland-Sutton had run into a species that needed to gnaw bones and had poor synthetic capacity for taurine, and for whom taurine is an essential amino acid. Cod-liver oil provided both the necessary vitamins and the taurine required for conjugating bile acids for intestinal fat-soluble vitamin absorption. Bland-Sutton was fortunate in his choice of dietary supplements. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Contributor Information Russell W Chesney, Email: rchesney@uthsc.edu. Gail Hedberg, Email: gailh@sfzoo.org.

The chemical composition and hardness of bovine bone, porcine bone, chicken bone, and rabbit bone were compared, as well as the influence of nanoprocessing on the physicochemical characteristics of these bone powders. A series of nanofabrication processes led to an increase in bone minerals and the loss of protein and fat. The hardness of softened bovine bone was still the largest, whereas chicken and rabbit bones were relatively soft. There were no significant differences in the functional groups between nanoscale bone powders. Overall, nanomachining significantly reduced and homogenized the bone particle size and improved the color and release rate of calcium ions of bone powders at the same time; these effects were different for several bones. Nanoscale rabbit bone had higher comminution efficiency, as well as satisfactory nutritional value, color, and product yield, which supports its strong development potential.

Children between the ages 4–8 should be consuming 1,000 mg/day of calcium to ensure adequate bone health. Calcium's most essential function relates to the Nutrition is the intake of food, considered in relation to the body's dietary needs. Well-maintained nutrition includes a balanced diet as well as a regular exercise routine. Nutrition is an essential aspect of everyday life as it aids in supporting mental as well as physical body functioning. The National Health and Medical Research Council determines the Dietary Guidelines within Australia and Calcium is a nutrient that can be gained through the consumption of primarily milk and cheeses, however, can also be derived from fish, as well as vegetables from the brassica family. Children between the ages 4–8 should be consuming 1,000 mg/day of calcium to ensure adequate bone health. Calcium's most essential function relates to the growth and strengthening of muscles and bones, with 1% of calcium also undergoing a crucial role in protein functioning. A lack of calcium within the diet can ultimately lead to progressive bone diseases such as osteoporosis, which results in a loss of bone density due to the overactive osteoclasts reabsorbing bone matrix and overpowering the action of osteoblasts, which build calcium into the bone matrix. Early onset calcium deficiency can result in children developing brittle bones, inhibiting their ability to participate in sporting activities and general weight bearing activities, without an increased risk of fracture and permanent bone damage. Nutrition is the intake of food, considered in relation to the body's dietary needs. Well-maintained nutrition includes a balanced diet as well as a regular exercise routine. Nutrition is an essential aspect of everyday life as it aids in supporting mental as well as physical body functioning. The National Health and Medical Research Council determines the Dietary Guidelines within Australia and it requires children to consume an adequate amount of food from each of the five food groups, which includes fruit, vegetables, meat and poultry, whole grains as well as dairy products. Nutrition is especially important for developing children as it influences every aspect of their growth and development. Nutrition allows children to maintain a stable BMI, reduces the risks of developing obesity, anemia and diabetes as well as minimises child susceptibility to mineral and vitamin deficiencies. Exercise is a fundamental feature of every growing child's life. Physical activity is essential for bone, muscle and body development in children as well as important for its role in burning excess calories and ensuring there are no lipid build-ups around significant organs such as the heart, liver, stomach or lungs. It is recommended that children between the ages of 5–18 years old participate in 60 minutes of moderate to rigorous exercise every day. Such exercise could consist of planned sporting activities or just the frequent usage of a gym. However the defined exercise standards are not being met, with a survey in 2012 revealing that only one in ten Australian children carried out the recommended 60 minutes of exercise a day. A nationally conducted survey within Australia proved that in 2006, 974,000 children between the ages of 5–8 nationwide did not participate in a sport of any kind. This is a staggering number, which is vastly contributing to the poor nutritional lifestyle that many Australian children are leading. It is essential for children to enjoy the physical activities they are participating in, if the recommended standard of exercise is to be maintained. In 2009 Wellington public school in NSW underwent a study to increase nutrition and encourage increased physical activity among children. The study focused on 37 children spanning from the ages of 4 through to 13, of which their attitudes and daily exercise routine was reviewed. The study documented that there was initially a lapse in willingness to participate, however, after introducing fun games and engaging recreational sporting activities to the school culture, children began to engage more in physical activity. The outcomes being an overwhelming increase in whole school sporting participation. Physical activity among children has slowly been increasing, since the 2007 National Preventative Health Task force, released guidelines for healthy eating and physical activity routines for children. The efforts of the NPHTF, as well as other nutritional organizations can be seen in the 52–58 (girls) and 66–69 (boys) percentage increase in organized sporting participation in 2009. Organised nutritional programs are essential if Australians are to become more balanced in their dietary and lifestyle choices. "Obesity is an abnormal accumulation of body fat, usually 20% or more over an individual's ideal body weight". "Obesity is a major contributor to the global burden of chronic disease and disability". In 1995–2007 Australian children Calcium is a nutrient that can be gained through the consumption of primarily milk and cheeses, however, can also be derived from fish, as well as vegetables from the brassica family. Children between the ages 4–8 should be consuming 1,000 mg/day of calcium to ensure adequate bone health. Calcium's most essential function relates to the growth and strengthening of muscles and bones, with 1% of calcium also undergoing a crucial role in protein functioning. A lack of calcium within the diet can ultimately lead to progressive bone diseases such as osteoporosis, which results in a loss of bone density due to the overactive osteoclasts reabsorbing bone matrix and overpowering the action of osteoblasts, which build calcium into the bone matrix. Early onset calcium deficiency can result in children developing brittle bones, inhibiting their ability to participate in sporting activities and general weight bearing activities, without an increased risk of fracture and permanent bone damage.

Pizza being the most popular food worldwide, quality and sensory appeal are important considerations during its modification effort. This study was aimed to evaluate the quality of pizza made using two different sources of proteins, chickpea (Cicer arietinum) flour and dried carp fish powder (Cyprinus carpio). Analysis indicated nutrients richness specificity of chickpea flour (higher fiber, energy, iron, zinc, linoleic acid and total nonessential amino acids) and dried carp fish powder (higher contents of protein, fats, ash, oleic acid and total essential amino acids) complementing wheat flou