This paper presents a comprehensive framework for designing and deploying aerial robots (aerobots) to revolutionise Mars exploration. The Martian environment, characterised by a tenuous atmosphere, extreme thermal variations, and diverse, often inaccessible terrain, presents fundamental challenges to the operational range and efficiency of conventional rovers and landers. Aerobots can overcome many of these limitations by enabling rapid regional surveys, accessing high-priority sites beyond rover reach, and supporting human exploration through environmental reconnaissance. Drawing on insights from past planetary missions, including the Ingenuity helicopter, the framework integrates planetary science constraints with aerospace engineering principles to address aerodynamic performance, structural integrity, autonomy, and environmental resilience. Central to this work is the Mars Aerobot Design Thinking Matrix, a decision-support tool that links mission objectives to testable engineering requirements, enabling systematic trade-off analysis across configuration, energy strategy, and operational margins. The proposed framework aims to guide the development of aerobots capable of sustained and scientifically productive operations in the unique conditions of Mars. It integrates insights from prior exploration with aerospace engineering considerations to address the environmental constraints that govern flight performance and reliability. The approach links aeronautics and planetary science, emphasising that design choices must be grounded in a detailed understanding of Mars, captured in the guiding metaphor that one should imagine breathing on Mars before planning to fly in its air 1 . The focus is on aligning concepts with the realities of atmospheric density, temperature extremes, dust, and topographic variability so designs are not only theoretically sound but also operationally viable. The exploration of Venus demonstrated the feasibility of long-duration atmospheric flight, as seen in the Vega balloon missions, despite the planet’s extreme surface conditions. This contrasts with Mars, where its thin atmosphere poses significant aerodynamic challenges, requiring innovative lift solutions for sustained flight. Understanding these planetary differences is crucial for designing and developing aerobots optimised for Martian flight conditions, as discussed in the Since landing, it completed 72 short autonomous pre-commanded flights before being damaged in January 2024, accumulating approximately 129 min of flight time, covering 17 km, reaching altitudes of up to 24 m, and achieving ground speeds of up to 10 m s −1 33 . This pace can be further increased with the next generation of aerobot designs. The following sections introduce a structured design framework that systematically addresses these constraints, ensuring that future aerobots are optimized for sustained Martian flight. When wind exceed 17 m s −1 , it mobilises sand and fine particles, with storms reaching up to 30 m s −1 60 . Despite high speeds, the thin air yields low dynamic pressure, so winds would feel like a light breeze to humans 61 . These regimes inform flight envelopes and operational constraints. Air density The primary parameter influencing most aerodynamic calculations for a Martian aircraft is the air density at its operational altitude. Mars’ average surface air density, about 0.020 kg m −3 —less than 2% of Earth’s sea-level density (1.225 kg m −3 ) 51 —poses substantial challenges for lift generation, necessitating larger rotors or wings. It generates density estimates based on input parameters such as flight time and location and can output results as ranges or curves. Alternatively, the Mars Global Reference Atmospheric Model (Mars-GRAM) 66 , primarily used by NASA and authorised partners, offers similar capabilities. Figure 6 generated using MCD v6.1 63 for average solar conditions in Martian climatology, illustrates key atmospheric parameters—air density, viscosity, wind speed, and temperature—that directly influence lift, drag, stability, and power demands. Design, development and delivery considerations for Martian aerobots Comprehending Mars’ atmospheric and environmental conditions is crucial for designing in situ aerial robotic missions. These insights guide the development of exploration technologies adapted to the planet’s unique challenges. The thin atmosphere demands highly efficient lift mechanisms and strong, lightweight structures for low-pressure flight. Autonomous capability is critical due to communication delays with Earth, requiring energy-efficient, radiation-hardened systems capable of independent navigation without Global Navigation Satellite System (GNSS) 96 . Flight dynamics considerations Mars’ atmosphere, at about 1% of Earth’s density, poses significant challenges for aerial vehicle design. Terrestrial combustion engines are impractical due to the lack of free oxygen, although the thin atmosphere still allows for rotary propulsion systems like rotors or propellers 96 . The thin air significantly reduces the Reynolds number, which measures the ratio between inertial and viscous forces in the atmosphere, leading to decreased aerodynamic efficiency. A lower Reynolds number increases the possibility of flow separation and drag over the flight surfaces, making it more difficult to generate lift and maintain stable flight in Mars’ atmosphere. Conventional designs might be suited for long, sustained flights, while VTOL (Vertical Take-Off and Landing) variants combine the benefits of fixed wings with the ability to take off and land vertically, crucial in Mars’ varied terrain. Gliders, which do not rely on continuous propulsion, could exploit Mars’ atmospheric conditions for energy-efficient flight over extended distances. Rotorcraft aerobots, including Unicopter, Multicopter, Coaxial Multicopter, and Gyrocopter, are characterised by their rotating blades, which provide lift and thrust.