extent in China . § 8 In these last six chapters we have traced in outline the whole process by which, in the course of 5000 or 6000 years —that is to The Outline of History/Chapter 20 - Wikisource, the free online library Jump to content Download From Wikisource < The Outline of History ← Chapter XIX The Outline of History by  Herbert George Wells , illustrated by  James Francis Horrabin Chapter XX Chapter XXI → New York: The Macmillan Company, pages 254–274 4377680 The Outline of History — Chapter XX ​   XX SERFS, SLAVES, SOCIAL CLASSES, AND FREE INDIVIDUALS § 1. The Common Man in Ancient Times. § 2. The Earliest Slaves. § 3. The first "Independent" Persons. § 4. Social Classes Three Thousand Years Ago. § 5. Classes Hardening into Castes. § 6. Caste in India. § 7. The System of the Mandarins. § 8. It has been an outline of the accumulations of human experience for ten or fifteen thousand years, a vast space of time in comparison with all subsequent history, but a brief period when we measure it against the succession of endless generations that intervenes between us and the first rude flint-using human creatures of the Pleistocene dawn. But for these last four chapters we have been writing almost entirely not about mankind generally, but only about the men who thought, the men who could draw and read and write, the men who were altering their world. Beneath their activities what was the life of the mute multitude? He went about Egypt looking at temples and monuments and gathering information. We know, not only from him, but from other evidence, that in those days the older temples and the pyramids (which were already nearly three thousand years old) were visited by strings of tourists, a special sort of priests acting as guides. The inscriptions the sightseers scribbled upon the walls remain to this day, and many of them have been deciphered and published.   ​ As his knowledge accumulated, he conceived the idea of writing a great history of the attempts of Persia to subdue Greece. But in order to introduce that history he composed an account of the past of Greece, Persia, Assyria, Babylonia, Egypt, Scythia, and of the geography and peoples of those countries. He then set himself, it is said, to make his history known among his friends in Halicarnassus by reciting it to them, but they failed to appreciate it; and he then betook himself to Athens, the most flourishing of all Greek cities at that time. There his work was received with applause. But before we come to that conflict, we must traverse a long history of many centuries.   § 6 If now we turn eastward from this main development of civilization in the world between Central Asia and the Atlantic, to the social development of India in the 2000 years next before the Christian era, we find certain broad and very interesting differences. The first of these is that we find such a fixity of classes in process of establishment as no other part of the world can present.   § 7 In China we find a social system travelling along yet another and only a very roughly parallel line to that followed by the Indian and Western civilizations. The Chinese civilization even more than the Hindu is But since his education so far has been almost entirely a scholarly study of the classical Chinese literature, his influence has been entirely conservative. Before the days of Alexander the Great, China had already formed itself and set its feet in the way in which it was still walking in the year 1900 a.d. Invaders and dynasties had come and gone, but the routine of life of the yellow civilization remained unchanged. The traditional Chinese social system recognized four main classes below the priest-emperor. ( a ) The literary class, which was equivalent partly to the officials of the Western world and partly to its teachers and clerics. In the time of Confucius its education included archery and horsemanship. Rites and music, history and mathematics completed the "Six Accomplishments." ( b ) The cultivators of the land. ( c ) The artisans. ( d ) The mercantile class. But since from the earliest times it has been the Chinese way to divide the landed possessions of a man among all his sons, there has never been in Chinese history any class of great land-owners, renting their land to tenants, such as most other countries have displayed. The Chinese land has always been cut up into small holdings, which are chiefly freeholds, and cultivated intensively. From such masses it is that the soldiers needed by the Chinese government are recruited, and also such gang labour as has been needed for the making of canals, the building of walls, and the like has  ​ been drawn. [ 8 ] The war captive and the slave class play a smaller part in Chinese history than in any more westerly record of these ages before the Christian era. One fact, we may note, is common to all these three stories of developing social structure, and that is the immense power exercised by the educated class in the early stages before the crown or the commonalty began to read and, consequently, to think for itself.   § 8 In these last six chapters we have traced in outline the whole process by which, in the course of 5000 or 6000 years—that is to say, in something between 150 and 200 generations—mankind passed from the stage of early Neolithic husbandry, in which the primitive skin-clad family tribe reaped and stored in their rude mud huts the wild-growing fodder and grain-bearing grasses with  ​ sickles of stone, to the days of the fourth century b.c. 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China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. It is divided into 33 province-level divisions, including two special administrative regions. Beijing is the capital, while Shanghai is the most populous city by urban area. Its geography features the Central Plain, major rivers such as the Yangtze and Yellow River, deserts, subtropical and temperate forests, platea The modern PRC is often described by analysts as an example of state capitalism or party-state capitalism, with both market forces and the state playing a major role in the economy. Various state organs manage the economy according to the State Council's five-year plans. The PRC describes its economic system as a "socialist market economy," in which the market plays a decisive role in resource allocation under the macro-control of a socialist state. The Chinese economy has expanded more than 20 times since 2000, achieving the second-largest economy by GDP (CN¥140 trillion in 2025) and the largest when adjusted for purchasing power parity. The PRC has brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history, roughly 800 million. The private sector is the largest portion of the Chinese economy, while about 30–40% is under state ownership. Less than 10% of exports… Various forms of robe served as the main form of clothing for both men and women throughout Chinese history, changing and adapting over the centuries. New dynasties often sought to reform formal clothing, with the Qing enforcing fashions based off traditional Manchu clothes. Silk, hemp, and later cotton were the main textiles used in traditional clothing. Both men and women generally bound their hair with caps or pins, except during periods where foreign hairstyles were enforced by the ruling elite. Although hairstyles changed greatly, only groups outside conventional society, such as monks, criminals, and foreigners deviated from the norm. Chinese fashions changed greatly during the 20th cent The modern PRC is often described by analysts as an example of state capitalism or party-state capitalism, with both market forces and the state playing a major role in the economy. Various state organs manage the economy according to the State Council's five-year plans. The PRC describes its economic system as a "socialist market economy," in which the market plays a decisive role in resource allocation under the macro-control of a socialist state. The Chinese economy has expanded more than 20 times since 2000, achieving the second-largest economy by GDP (CN¥140 trillion in 2025) and the largest when adjusted for purchasing power parity. The PRC has brought more people out of extreme poverty than any other country in history, roughly 800 million. The private sector is the largest portion of the Chinese economy, while about 30–40% is under state ownership. Less than 10% of exports were by state-owned companies, while industries such as transportation, utilities, and financial services are generally under state ownership. Since the 1990s, the PRC has decentralized its economic planning, with about 85% of government spending delegated to the provincial or local level, with local governments adapting national economic plans to suit local interests. China is the world's leading manufacturing power, accounting for 30% of global manufacturing; it is the largest producer of steel, rare earths, ships, and automobiles, as well as the largest exporter of electronics. It has struggled to establish its currency, the renminbi (in units of yuan), as an international reserve currency; as of 2025, it is the seventh largest currency in foreign exchange reserves. About a third of China's workforce are domestic migrant workers, the floating population. The hukou ('household individual') system restricts citizens' access to services and utilities outside of their registered home, leading to pronounced inequalities between workers from urban and rural areas. Especially in larger cities, only those with local hukou may be able to buy property, though hukou restrictions have loosened significantly in the recent decades. The PRC has a high debt-to-GDP ratio (almost 300% in 2020), with household debt at about 65% of the GDP. Since the 1990s, automobiles have supplanted trains as the primary form of transport in China. According to state data, the Chinese highway network exceeds 6,000,000 kilometres (3,700,000 mi) by the end of 2021, having grown 30% over the past decade. In addition to local and provincial routes, this network includes the national highways, which are divided between the ordinary highways (of various classes) and the national expressway system. China Various forms of robe served as the main form of clothing for both men and women throughout Chinese history, changing and adapting over the centuries. New dynasties often sought to reform formal clothing, with the Qing enforcing fashions based off traditional Manchu clothes. Silk, hemp, and later cotton were the main textiles used in traditional clothing. Both men and women generally bound their hair with caps or pins, except during periods where foreign hairstyles were enforced by the ruling elite. Although hairstyles changed greatly, only groups outside conventional society, such as monks, criminals, and foreigners deviated from the norm. Chinese fashions changed greatly during the 20th century. Traditional designs largely gave way to western clothing during the Republican era and the early years of the People's Republic. Qipao became a popular form of women's dress during the early 20th century, but are today rare outside of formal occasions. While simple, practical clothing which avoided bright colors was the norm during the Mao era, the reform era saw the emergence of a fashion industry and increasing similarities between Chinese and contemporary western fashions. In the 21st century, the Hanfu movement has sought to promote a reconstructed form of traditional Chinese clothing.

The preservation and advancement of Traditional Villages are intricately linked to the perpetuation of cultural heritage. However, existing research on the spatial disparities among Traditional Villages has yet to consider the impact of cultural factors. Moreover, the geographical similarities shared by Traditional Villages have not been thoroughly examined. Therefore, this study takes the Yellow River Basin and the Yangtze River Basin, both pivotal in the genesis of Chinese culture, as case studies. We employ an Optimal Parameter-based GeoDetector alongside the Spatially Constrained Multivari Moreover, the geographical similarities shared by Traditional Villages have not been thoroughly examined. Therefore, this study takes the Yellow River Basin and the Yangtze River Basin, both pivotal in the genesis of Chinese culture, as case studies. We employ an Optimal Parameter-based GeoDetector alongside the Spatially Constrained Multivariate Clustering method to delve into the factors influencing the spatial differentiation and geographical similarities of Traditional Villages within these two significant river basins. Subsequently, we offer recommendations for fostering the sustainable preservation and development of Traditional Villages in these regions. However, the problem of rural decline has emerged as a fundamental issue stemming from global urbanization and industrialization [ 4 ]. Extensive research has already provided evidence of rural decline in developed countries such as Europe, America, and China [ 5 – 7 ]. According to the Chinese National Bureau of Statistics, the number of villages in China was 3,773,000 in 1990 and 2,633,000 at the end of 2021, a decrease of 1,140,000 in 31 years, with a mean of 101 villages going away daily, and relevant studies have shown that the hollow index of Chinese Traditional villages (CTVs) has exceeded 0.5 [ 8 ]. Moreover, according to statistics published by Chinese National Bureau of Statistics, by the end of 2022, China’s urbanization rate has reached 65.22%, which will mean that nearly 300 million people will still be converted from rural to urban household registration in China in the next 30 years, according to the standard of 80% to 90% urbanization rate in developed countries, which show that TVs in China are facing a variety of issues, notably "hollowing out", urban development, aging of traditional buildings, resource development, excessive tourism, and ecological pollution, and the protection of TVs is a matter of urgency [ 9 – 14 ]. As early as the 1840s, the German geographer J.G. Cole researched the classification and development model of settlements [ 15 ]. Subsequently, esteemed scholars such as Paul, Albert, Jean, and others began extensive research to delve deeper into the morphology, functions, distribution, and diverse geographical phenomena related to rural settlements [ 16 – 18 ]. In recent years, the study of TVs has gained significant attention in academic disciplines such as architecture, geography, tourism, urban planning, and related fields [ 10 , 19 – 21 ]. The Yellow River Basin (YLRB) and the YZRB, both regarded as the birthplaces of Chinese civilization, have not only fostered a rich tapestry of diverse ethnic cultures but have also engendered intricate human-environment dynamics [ 31 ]. These areas have not merely upheld and perpetuated the legacy of Chinese culture throughout history but have also played a pivotal role in safeguarding ecological integrity and advancing the economic development of the Chinese nation [ 29 ]. Therefore, conducting a comprehensive exploration of the influencing factors responsible for the spatial distribution of TVs within these two significant river basins, along with a deeper investigation into the geographical commonalities among these villages, stands to significantly contribute to the development of well-grounded strategies for the preservation and advancement of TVs. Consequently, it will facilitate the enduring preservation and progression of Chinese culture. This They have fostered a magnificent national culture and are key hubs of China’s economic development. 7,000 years ago at the earliest, agricultural settlements were established here, leaving behind numerous rich heritages and traditional ways of life in ancient villages [ 32 – 34 ]. As of May 2023, there are 1,129 TVs in the YLRB and 3,690 in the YZRB. The YLRB and the YZRB have distinct geographical and ecological characteristics, with significant climate, topography, and vegetation differences ( Fig 1 ). The two regions’ different historical, cultural, and economic backgrounds have resulted in their unique spatial distributions of TVs. As elevation surpasses 1000 meters, the number of TVs distributions decreases with increasing elevation. Beyond an elevation of 3500 meters, only three TVs are found, and no TVs are present in regions exceeding 5000 meters in elevation. Regarding relief, 99.8% of TVs are situated in areas with relief below 500 meters, accounting for 1127 villages. Only two villages are located in the relief range of 500–1000 meters. Within the YZRB, the highest number of TVs is found in the elevation range of 201–1000 meters, totaling 2113 villages. The number of TVs increases with elevation within the elevation range of -553 meters to 200 meters. However, beyond an elevation of 200 meters, the number of TVs gradually decreases with increasing elevation, and no TVs are found above 5000 meters in elevation. As for relief, 99.3% of TVs are distributed in areas with relief below 500 meters, comprising 3363 villages. There are 27 villages in the relief range of 500–1000 meters. Overall, TVs are primarily situated in regions with lower elevations and relatively flat terrain ( Fig 6 ). 10.1371/journal.pone.0295854.g006 Fig 6 Analysis of the elevation and relief of TVs. (a) ELE and RE distribution of TVs in YLRB. (b) ELE and RE distribution of TVs in YZRB. (c) Count of TVs in each range of ELE and RE.