Anthropological evidence from multiple indigenous societies, particularly in lowland South America, demonstrates the existence of partible paternity beliefs, where communities hold that a child can have more than one biological father.
The claim asserts that certain pre-modern societies lacked an understanding of the biological link between sex and reproduction in the strict modern singular sense. The retrieved papers on partible paternity document multiple indigenous societies (particularly in Amazonia) holding conception beliefs that multiple men contribute to forming a fetus (partible paternity). This directly supports the claim that alternative understandings of biological paternity existed. No papers refute this premise.