Breath-holding exercises can successfully simulate physiological adaptations to hypoxic training
Breath-holding exercises and voluntary hypoventilation effectively simulate physiological responses to hypoxic training, leading to improved fatigue resistance, enhanced metabolic stress, and favorable cardiovascular adaptations.
The retrieved literature consistently shows that breath-holding techniques (such as voluntary hypoventilation and end-expiratory breath holding) induce acute hypoxia and hypercapnia, leading to physiological adaptations similar to those achieved via external hypoxic training (such as improved repeated-sprint ability, enhanced metabolic efficiency, and increased aerobic capacity). Multiple experimental studies and a recent meta-analysis support this conclusion.
Woorons X, Faucher C, Dufour SP, Brocherie F, Robach P, Connes P, Brugniaux JV, Verges S, Gaston AF, Millet G, Dupuy O, Pichon A. Hypoventilation training including maximal end-expiratory breath holding improves the ability to repeat high-intensity efforts in elite judo athletes.. 2024. https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2024.1441696
Four weeks of repeated sprint training using voluntary hypoventilation and end-expiratory breath holding improved repeat-sprint ability and muscle perfusion in elite athletes.
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Précart C, Bouten J, Woorons X, Fornasier-Santos C, Millet GP, Brocherie F. Repeated-Sprint Training in Hypoxia Induced by Voluntary Hypoventilation at Low Lung Volume: A Meta-analysis.. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1186/s40798-025-00853-6
A meta-analysis demonstrates that repeated-sprint training in hypoxia induced by voluntary hypoventilation provides significant gains in fatigue resistance and glycolytic metabolism compared to normal breathing.
Woorons X, Daussin F, Combes A, Mucci P. Physiological Responses to Supramaximal Running Exercise with End-Expiratory Breath Holding up to the Breaking Point.. 2024. https://doi.org/10.5114/jhk/174465
Supramaximal exercise with end-expiratory breath holding successfully triggers acute arterial, cerebral, and muscle desaturation alongside compensatory hemodynamic responses.
Danek N. Carbon Dioxide Inhalation-Risks for Health or Opportunity for Physical Fitness Development?. 2026. https://doi.org/10.3390/jcm15010364
Voluntary hypoventilation acts as a targeted method of intermittent hypercapnia and hypoxia that can induce specific metabolic and ventilatory stimuli similar to hypoxic training.
Chiba K, Yasuda T. Effects of sprint interval training with voluntary hypoventilation on aerobic and anaerobic energy metabolism in young men.. 2026. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00421-026-06124-w
Sprint interval training combined with voluntary hypoventilation enhances aerobic capacity and oxidative metabolism markers such as VO2max in young men.
Bezruk D, Bahenský P, Marko D, Krajcigr M, Bahenský P Jr, Novák-Nowická E, Mrkvička T. The Effect of Static Apnea Diving Training on the Physiological Parameters of People with a Sports Orientation and Sedentary Participants: A Pilot Study.. 2024. https://doi.org/10.3390/sports12060140
Static apnea training improves cardiorespiratory parameters, decreases blood oxygen saturation, and increases maximum apnea duration across various participant groups.
D'Orsi G, Vasco P, Marzovillo RRR, Forte N, Scioscia G, Cartagena G, Marinaccio LA, Torquato ML, Cibelli G, Valenzano AA. Metabolic, Cardiovascular, and Stress Biomarker Adaptations to Breath-Hold Training in a National-Level Swimmer: A Signal-Generating Single-Case Study.. 2026. https://doi.org/10.3390/jfmk11020213
Breath-hold training implemented over several weeks demonstrates positive cardiovascular, metabolic, and performance adaptations in a competitive athlete.
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