This article discusses the similarities and differences of the position of Great Britain in Egypt and Austria-Hungary in Bosnia-Herzegovina in the age of New Imperialism. Comparative approach will allow us to put both situations in their historical context. Austria-Hungary?s absorption of Bosnia-Herzegovina was part of colonial involvement throughout the world. Egypt and Bosnia-Herzegovina were formally parts of the Ottoman Empire, although occupied and administrated by European Powers. Two administrators, Evelyn Baring as consul-general in Egypt and Benjamin von K?llay as civil administrator of Bosnia-Herzegovina, believed that it was their duty to bring ?civilization?, prosperity and western culture to these lands - a classic argumentation found in the New Imperialism discourse. One of the most important tasks for both administrators was fighting the national movements, which led to the suppression of political freedoms and the introduction of a large administrative apparatus to govern the newly-occupied lands. Complete control over political life and the educational system was also one of the major features of both administrations. Both Great Britain in Egypt and Austria-Hungary in Bosnia-Herzegovina never tackled the agrarian question for their own political reasons. British rule in Egypt and Austro-Hungarian in Bosnia-Herzegovina bore striking resemblances.

Avusturya-Macaristan İmparatorluğu tarafından Bosna ve Hersek eyaletlerinin geçici olarak işgal edildiği ve bu eyaletlerde Sultan’ın hükümranlığının teyit edildiği Berlin Antlaşması’nda (1878) ve 21 Nisan 1879 tarihli Dersaadet Mukavelenamesi’nde kesin olarak belirtilmişti. Buna rağmen Avusturya-Macaristan İmparatorluğu 5 Ekim 1908 tarihinde Bosna ve Hersek eyaletlerini ilhak ettiğini ilan etmiştir. Avusturya-Macaristan İmparatorluğu’nun bu hamlesi, Balkanlar’da statükonun korunmasına yönelik 1897 yılında Rusya’yla birlikte aldıkları karar ile Mürzsteg (1903) kararlarına da aykırı bir hamleydi. Dolayısıyla bu hamle Osmanlı Devleti ile yapılmış bir antlaşmayı bozması kadar Avrupa statükosunu da bozarak Avusturya-Macaristan İmparatorluğu’nun başta Rusya olmak üzere Berlin Antlaşması’na imza atan devletleri karşısına alması anlamına gelmekteydi. Bu makalede Avusturya-Macaristan İmparatorluğu’nun Bosna ve Hersek eyaletlerini neden ilhak ettiği, ilhak kararının başta Babıali olmak üzere diğer hükûmetlerce nasıl karşılandığı ve sonuçlarının neler olduğu sorularına yanıtlar aranmıştır. Çalışma daha ziyade düvel-i muazzama arasındaki ilişkiler bağlamında ele alınan bu meseleyi Osmanlı arşiv evrâkı üzerinden bilhassa Osmanlı hükûmetine olan yansımaları bakımından ele almasıyla özgünlük ve önem arz etmektedir.

the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The last of the Ottoman censuses was performed in 1914. Despite military The Ottoman Empire, historically also known as the Turkish Empire or Turkey, was a state that spanned much of Southeastern Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th century to the early 20th century, centred in modern-day Turkey. It also controlled parts of southeastern Central Europe between the early 16th and early 18th centuries. The empire emerged from a beylik, or principality, found The… The Ottoman Empire, historically also known as the Turkish Empire or Turkey, was a state that spanned much of Southeastern Europe, West Asia, and North Africa from the 14th century to the early 20th century, centred in modern-day Turkey. It also controlled parts of southeastern Central Europe between the early 16th and early 18th centuries. The empire emerged from a beylik, or principality, founded in northwestern Anatolia in c. 1299 by the Turkoman tribal leader Osman I. His successors conquered much of Anatolia and expanded into the Balkans by the mid-14th century, transforming their petty kingdom into a transcontinental empire. The Ottomans ended the Byzantine Empire with the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II. Further conquests by Selim I led the Sultans to adopt the title of caliph. With its capital at Constantinople and The Ottoman bashi-bazouks suppressed the Bulgarian uprising of 1876, massacring up to 100,000 people in the process. The Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878) ended with a decisive victory for Russia. As a result, Ottoman holdings in Europe declined sharply: Bulgaria was established as an independent principality inside the Ottoman Empire; Romania achieved full independence; and Serbia and Montenegro finally gained complete independence, but with smaller territories. In 1878, Austria-Hungary unilaterally occupied the Ottoman provinces of Bosnia-Herzegovina and Novi Pazar. British Prime Minister Benjamin Disraeli advocated restoring the Ottoman territories on the Balkan Peninsula during the Congress of Berlin, and in return, Britain assumed the administration of Cyprus in 1878. Britain later sent troops to Egypt in 1882 to put down the Urabi Revolt (Sultan Abdul Hamid II was too paranoid to mobilise his own army, fearing this would result in a coup d'état), effectively gaining control in both territories. Abdul Hamid II was so fearful of a coup that he did not allow his army to conduct war games, lest this serve as cover for a coup, but he did see the need for military mobilisation. In 1883, a German military mission under General Baron Colmar von der Goltz arrived to train the Ottoman Army, leading to the so-called "Goltz generation" of German-trained officers, who played a notable role in the politics of the empire's last years. From 1894 to 1896, between 100,000 and 300,000 Armenians living throughout the empire were killed in what became known as the Hamidian massacres. In 1897 the population was 19 million, of whom 14 million (74%) were Muslim. An additional 20 million lived in provinces that remained under the sultan's nominal suzerainty but were entirely outside his actual power. One by one the Porte lost nominal authority. They included Egypt, Tunisia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, Bosnia-Herzegovina, and Lebanon. As the Ottoman Empire gradually shrank, 7–9 million Muslims from its former territories in the Caucasus, Crimea, Balkans, and the Mediterranean islands migrated to Anatolia and Eastern Thrace. After the Empire lost the First Balkan War (1912–1913), it lost all its Balkan territories except East Thrace (European Turkey). This resulted in around 400,000 Muslims fleeing with the retreating Ottoman armies (with many dying from cholera brought by the soldiers), and 400,000 non-Muslims fled territory still under Ottoman rule. Justin McCarthy estimates that from 1821 to 1922, 5.5 million Muslims died in southeastern Europe, with the expulsion of 5 million. In addition the Ottoman state encouraged transnational migration, including Circassians, Bosnians, and Russian Jews resettled in the southern Levant. These communities, alongside internal Arab resettlement, reshaped rural society and land use in ways that reflected broader imperial patterns of demographic engineering and agrarian expansion. The defeat and dissolution of the Ottoman Empire (1908–1922) began with the Second Constitutional Era, a moment of hope and promise established with the Young Turk Revolution. It restored the Constitution of the Ottoman Empire and brought in multi-party politics with a two-stage electoral system (electoral law) under the Ottoman parliament. The constitution offered hope by freeing the empire's citizens to modernise the state's institutions, rejuvenate its strength, and enable it to hold its own against outside powers. Its guarantee of liberties promised to dissolve inter-communal tensions and transform the empire into a more harmonious place. Instead, this period became the story of the twilight struggle of the Empire. Members of Young Turks movement who had once gone underground now established their parties. Among them the Committee of Union and Progress and the Freedom and Accord Party were major parties. On the other end of the spectrum were ethnic parties, which included Poale Zion, Al-Fatat, and Armenian national movement organised under Armenian Revolutionary Federation. Profiting from the civil strife, Austria-Hungary officially annexed Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1908. The last of the Ottoman censuses was performed in 1914. Despite military reforms which reconstituted the Ottoman Modern Army, the Empire lost its North African territories and the Dodecanese in the Italo-Turkish War (1911) and almost all of its European territories in the Balkan Wars (1912–1913). The Empire faced continuous unrest in the years leading up to World War I, including the 31 March Incident and two further coups in 1912 and 1913.

Bosnia and Herzegovina, often referred to as Bosnia-Herzegovina or simply Bosnia, is a country in Southeast Europe. Situated on the Balkan Peninsula, it borders Serbia to the east, Montenegro to the southeast, and Croatia to the north and southwest, with a 20-kilometre-long (12-mile) coast on the Adriatic Sea in the south. Bosnia has a moderate continental climate with hot summers and cold, snowy Austria–Hungary began to plan the annexation of Bosnia, but due to international disputes the issue was not resolved until the annexation crisis of 1908. Several external matters affected the status of Bosnia and its relationship with Austria–Hungary. A bloody coup occurred in Serbia in 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power in Belgrade. Then in 1908, the revolt in the Ottoman Empire raised concerns that the Istanbul government might seek the outright return of Bosnia and Herzegovina. These factors caused the Austro-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question sooner, rather than later. Taking advantage of the turmoil in the Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian diplomacy tried to obtain provisional Russian approval for changes over the status of Bosnia and Herzegovina and published the annexation proclamation on 6 October 1908. Despite international objections to the Austro-Hungarian annexation, Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in March 1909. In 1910, Habsburg Emperor Franz Joseph proclaimed the first constitution in Bosnia, which led to relaxation of earlier laws, elections and formation of the Bosnian parliament and growth of new political life. Following World War I, Bosnia and Herzegovina became a province in the South Slav Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes (soon renamed Yugoslavia). Political life in Bosnia and Herzegovina at this time was marked by two major trends: social and economic unrest over property redistributi It gradually evolved and expanded into the Kingdom of Bosnia, which became the most powerful state in the western Balkans by the 14th century. The Ottoman Empire annexed the region in 1463 and introduced Islam. From the late 19th century until World War I, the country was under Austro-Hungarian rule. In the interwar period, Bosnia and Herzegovina was part of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia. After World War II, it was granted full republic status in the newly formed Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia. In 1992, following the breakup of Yugoslavia, the republic proclaimed independence. The conflict rapidly spread and came to involve several Balkan states and Great Powers, a situation that led to the Congress of Berlin and the Treaty of Berlin in 1878. === Austro-Hungarian occupation and condominium === At the Congress of Berlin in 1878, the Austro-Hungarian Foreign Minister Gyula Andrássy obtained the occupation and administration of Bosnia and Herzegovina, and he also obtained the right to station garrisons in the Sanjak of Novi Pazar, which would remain under Ottoman administration until 1908, when the Austro-Hungarian troops withdrew from the Sanjak. Habsburg rule also tried to provide for modernisation by codifying laws, introducing new political institutions, establishing and expanding industries. Austria–Hungary began to plan the annexation of Bosnia, but due to international disputes the issue was not resolved until the annexation crisis of 1908. Several external matters affected the status of Bosnia and its relationship with Austria–Hungary. A bloody coup occurred in Serbia in 1903, which brought a radical anti-Austrian government into power in Belgrade. Then in 1908, the revolt in the Ottoman Empire raised concerns that the Istanbul government might seek the outright return of Bosnia and Herzegovina. These factors caused the Austro-Hungarian government to seek a permanent resolution of the Bosnian question sooner, rather than later. Taking advantage of the turmoil in the Ottoman Empire, Austro-Hungarian diplomacy tried to obtain provisional Russian approval for changes over the status of Bosnia and Herzegovina and published the annexation proclamation on 6 October 1908. Despite international objections to the Austro-Hungarian annexation, Russians and their client state, Serbia, were compelled to accept the Austro-Hungarian annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina in March 1909. The political reforms brought about in the newly established Yugoslav kingdom saw few benefits for the Bosnian Muslims; according to the 1910 final census of land ownership and population according to religious affiliation conducted in Austria-Hungary, Muslims owned 91.1%, Orthodox Serbs owned 6.0%, Croat Catholics owned 2.6% and others, 0.3% of the property. Following the reforms, Bosnian Muslims were dispossessed of a total of 1,175,305 hectares of agricultural and forest land. The demographic expert Stevo Palašić concluded that between 1991 and 2023, Bosnia and Herzegovina lost 1.4 million people or one-third of its population. Tim Judah considers the 2022 state agency estimate of 3.4 million inhabitants "extremely optimistic" and wrongly based on the 2013 census. Pašalić, who based his calculation on the official data, estimates the number to 2.9 million. Other demographic experts from Bosnia and Herzegovina, including Miodrag Pantović and Nermin Oruč, estimate that the total population in Bosnia and Herzegovina is slightly below 1.5 million. including Borussia Dortmund, Hamburger SV and Bayer Leverkusen was joint-top scorer in the 2000–01 Bundesliga season with 22 goals. Meho Kodro spent most of his career playing in Spain, most notably with Real Sociedad and FC Barcelona. Elvir Rahimić made 302 appearances for Russian club CSKA Moscow with whom he won the UEFA Cup in 2005. Milena Nikolić, member of the women's national team, was the 2013–14 UEFA Women's Champions League top scorer. Bosnia and Herzegovina was the world champion of

... 1908 because of two developments , one international and the other domestic . The international event was Austria - Hungary's annexation of Bosnia ... autonomy to unredeemed Italian - speaking provinces in the south Tyrol , Julian Venetia ...

that corps. In October 1908 came the bombshell of the Austrian annexation of Bosnia , announced to King Victor Emmanuel and to other rulers by autograph

The aim of this paper is to analyze several secret and public agreements between Russia and Austro-Hungary from 1876 to 1908 in order to draw conclusions about the intentions of these two great powers regarding Bosnia and Herzegovina and why it was so important for their foreign policy goals. These agreements marginalized the interests of the people in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as those of other Balkan nations. Although they were agreements, they concealed insincere alliances of a short-term nature. Additionally, this paper will analyze the specific legal and political status of Bosnia and Herzegovina after the Berlin Congress, why Austro-Hungary decided to annex it, why Russia accepted this, and under what conditions. The Russian-Austrian agreements regarding Bosnia and Herzegovina during the specified period must be viewed within the context of broader international circumstances, as they were largely made at a time when other great powers were preoccupied with different foreign policy issues or, as was the case with Austro-Hungary, had the support of its ally Germany. Although the great powers agreed at the Paris Congress (1856) to respect the territorial integrity of the Ottoman Empire, it quickly became evident that Europe was unwilling to uphold this promise. New alliances—particularly the rapprochement between Austro-Hungary, Germany, and Russia, which resulted in the creation of the Three Emperors' League in 1873—were not formed to maintain the status quo in the East. In addition to the formation of alliances, the provisions of the Paris Peace were undermined by numerous uprisings of Christian peoples, which required intervention from the great powers. In the alleged suppression of uprisings in the Balkans, Russia and Austro-Hungary played the main role, especially from the 1870s onwards. The dominant Russian influence in the Balkans was shaken after the formation of the Dual Monarchy (1867) and the ousting of Austria from Central Europe. Austrian expa Ključne riječi: Rusija, Austro-Ugarska, Bosna i Hercegovina, ugovori, sporazumi, diplomatija, okupacija, aneksija. RUSSIAN-AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN AGREEMENTS ON BOSNIA AND HERZEGOVINA 1876-1908 Abstract: The aim of this paper is to analyze several secret and public agreements between Russia and Austro-Hungary from 1876 to 1908 in order to draw conclusions about the intentions of these two great powers regarding Bosnia and Herzegovina and why it was so important for their foreign policy goals. These agreements marginalized the interests of the people in Bosnia and Herzegovina, as well as those of other Balkan nations. The Raštak Agreement (1876) and the Budapest Convention (1877) concluded with Russia had already secured Austro-Hungary’s right to Bosnia and Herzegovina even before the Eastern Crisis had concluded and the Berlin Congress began its work (1878). From the Austro-Russian agreements from 1876 to 1908, it can be concluded that Austro-Hungary succeeded in its expansionist aims to penetrate the East. The focal point of these plans was indeed Bosnia and Herzegovina. Gradually, Austria would displace Russian influence by exploiting Russia's preoccupation with conquests in Asia and subsequently with the crisis in the country due to the February Revolution of 1905. From the Austro-Russian agreements from 1876 to 1908, it can be concluded that Austro-Hungary succeeded in its expansionist aims to penetrate the East. The focal point of these plans was indeed Bosnia and Herzegovina. Gradually, Austria would displace Russian influence by exploiting Russia's preoccupation with conquests in Asia and subsequently with the crisis in the country due to the February Revolution of 1905. Key words: Russia, Austro-Hungary, Bosnia and Herzegovina, treaties, agreements, diplomacy, occupation, annexation. Uvod Zaokret u politici Habzburške monarhije počeo je postepeno nak on njene reorganizacije 1867, da bi postao izrazit nakon francusko-pruskog rata. A year after leaving the German Confederation, the dual monarchy of Austro-Hungary was established. With the u nification of Italy and Germany, Austria lost the ability to expand its influ ence in Central Europe. Therefore, it turned its expansionist policy toward the Balkans. To realize its plan, known as the “March on the East,” it needed t o enter into 87 Rusko-Austro-Ugarski sporazumi o Bosni i Hercegovini 1876-1908. godine HISTORIJSKI POGLEDI 13 - HISTORICAL VIEWS 13 Bosnu i Hercegovinu ona je ponizila Rusija jer nije podržala nj ene težnje da dobije kontrolu nad Bosforom i Dardanelima. Od Berlinskog kongr esa počinju da se stvaraju svezi velikih sila. Već 1879. A year after leaving the German Confederation, the dual monarchy of Austro-Hungary was established. With the u nification of Italy and Germany, Austria lost the ability to expand its influ ence in Central Europe. Therefore, it turned its expansionist policy toward the Balkans. To realize its plan, known as the “March on the East,” it needed t o enter into diplomatic negotiations with Russia. Austria took advantage of opportunities when Russia was preoccupied with conquests in Asia or when its influence in the Balkans was weakened. Austro-Hungary entered into agreements wi th Russia thoughtfully, always aiming to gain control over Bosnia and Herzegovina. Serbia was a significant obstacle to Austrian plans in the Balkans, as Austria feared that the unification of other South Slavic nations around Serbia might occur. Therefore, it sought a favorable moment to negotiate again with Russia, putting the issue of the annexation of Bosnia and Herzegovina on the agenda. The opportunity arose after the outbreak of the Young Turk Revolution (1908). The new constitutional situation in the Otto man Empire brought the status of Bosnia and Herzegovina to the forefront. Nada TOMOVIĆ HISTORIJSKI POGLEDI 13 - HISTORICAL VIEWS 13 discussions, he had to accept Austro-Hungary's right to annex B osnia and Herzegovina, and in return, Erenthal promised

This monograph focuses on the activities of Russian consuls in Sarajevo, as well as the work of diplomats on the Bosnian-Herzegovinian issue both during the Great Eastern Crisis and before the Annexation Crisis. The Congress of Berlin, held after the Russian-Turkish War of 1877–78, placed the region under the control of the Habsburg Monarchy, but under the sovereignty of the Ottoman Sultan. The book shows that the Russian Military Ministry had a plan to prevent the occupation. One of the research subjects is the Russian-Austrian negotiation on the status of the provinces. The decisions made by the St Petersburg were based on an analysis of the situation in the province — the center for collecting information was the Consulate in Sarajevo, hence the author’s attention to its functioning. The assessment of the Austro-Hungarian modernisation policy in the occupied territory by the Russian Ministry of Foreign Affairs is analysed historiographically for the first time. The study of the ethnographic works by Pavel A. Rovinsky and Aleksei N. Kharuzin made it possible to trace the changes in the life of Bosnian and Herzegovinian inhabitants during the Austro-Hungarian occupation. Thus, the author attempts to demonstrate the connection between the internal development of the region and the decisions about its fate at the international level.