Biological sex is distributed as a spectrum rather than a strict binary
Contemporary biological and neuroendocrinological research increasingly recognizes that biological sex encompasses a wide array of genetic, hormonal, and anatomical variables that can be conceptualized as a spectrum rather than a rigid binary, particularly when accounting for intersex variations and multi-level physiological traits.
The claim that biological sex is distributed as a spectrum rather than a strict binary is supported by modern literature in neuroendocrinology, biology, and sex conceptualization frameworks (e.g., papers 2, 3, and 9) which highlight the diversity of sex characteristics and multi-level biological factors. Conversely, literature focusing on physiological dimorphism and performance (such as paper 0) points to bimodal distributions in certain traits like testosterone. Overall, the preponderance of recent conceptual and empirical biological frameworks favors viewing sex across a multi-faceted spectrum or diverse continuum, supporting the claim.
Smiley KO, Munley KM, Aghi K, Lipshutz SE, Patton TM, Pradhan DS, Solomon-Lane TK, Sun SED. Sex diversity in the 21st century: Concepts, frameworks, and approaches for the future of neuroendocrinology.. 2024. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yhbeh.2023.105445
Paper 2 discusses how sex exists across many biological levels and that a strict binary operationalization fails to capture the full diversity of sex in nature.
Handelsman DJ, Hirschberg AL, Bermon S. Circulating Testosterone as the Hormonal Basis of Sex Differences in Athletic Performance.. 2018. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2018-00020
Paper 0 emphasizes a clear, non-overlapping, bimodal distribution of circulating testosterone and physical traits that underpin male and female athletic categories.
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Hida Viloria, Maria Nieto. The Spectrum of Sex. 2020. https://doi.org/10.5040/9781805015383
Paper 3 highlights biological variations and intersex traits that challenge the traditional binary model of sex.
Ritz SA, DuBois LZ. Reframing the sex debate in scientific research: three frameworks to support rigor without rigidity.. 2025. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13293-025-00808-2
Paper 9 frames sex as a dynamic system and classification framework, noting that scientific discourse actively evaluates whether sex is appropriately viewed as a binary or a spectrum.
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