AbstractField-of-study mismatch occurs when a worker, trained in a particular field, works in another field. This study draws on the Survey of Adult Skills (PIAAC) to explore how skill supply and labour market demand dynamics influence mismatch. It updates cross-national estimates on mismatch and estimates the mismatch wage penalty. Findings suggest that around 40% of workers are mismatched by field at their qualification level, 11% overqualified in their field and 13% overqualified and working outside their field. The saturation of the field in the labour market and the transferability of the fields’ skills predict the incidence of field-of-study mismatch and overqualification. Workers who are mismatched by field only suffer a wage penalty if they are overqualified. 2010 , Béduwé and Giret 2011 and Kim et al. 2012 for noteworthy exceptions). The importance of accounting for qualification mismatch in analyses of the relationship between field-of-study mismatch and pay (or any other individual correlate thereof) is both statistical and conceptual. Most graduates will hope to gain employment at the level of their qualifications and in the field of specialisation (i.e. well-matched) and avoid employment that is both in another field and at a lower qualification level. However, the decision process that leads an individual to be matched by field but overqualified or well-matched by qualification level but mismatched by field-of-study is unclear. an author, journalist or linguist (ISCO-08 code 264) is considered to be matched to his/her field of study if they graduated from the “Humanities, languages and arts” or “Social sciences, business and law” fields). Qualification mismatch is estimated for each individual comparing his or her own educational attainment with their report on the adequate educational level needed to get their job at the time of the survey. Overqualified workers are those that have a higher educational attainment than that reported to get their job (Quintini 2011a , 2011b ; OECD 2013b ). Figure  1 below shows these relationships schematically with the resulting estimates. Fig. 1 Full size image Notes : Estimates from path analysis (i.e. simultaneous equations). Coefficients shown are unstandardized estimates and can be interpreted as the association between a one-unit change in the independent variable on the corresponding change in the dependent variable, as signalled by the direction of the arrow. Statistically significant estimates (at the p  < 0.05 level) are shown in a continuous line. 5 Results Table  1 shows the incidence of field-of-study mismatch and overqualification across 23 countries. On average across these countries, 25% of dependent workers are mismatched by field but working at an adequate qualification level (mismatched horizontally, but not vertically); 11% are overqualified in their field and 13% are overqualified and working in another field. Field-of-study mismatch (with or without overqualification) is most likely in Korea (50%), England/N. Ireland (UK) (50%), Italy (49%) and the USA (45%). It is lowest in Austria, Finland and Germany, at less than 30%. Graduates from fields that offer greater transferability are more likely to be mismatched by field only and less likely to be mismatched and overqualified: these workers seem better able to make horizontal moves without having to downgrade. Graduates from fields that are more saturated are more likely to be working in other fields, both at their qualification level and below their qualification levels; they are also less likely to be overqualified in their own field. 1 depict the average worker in the average participating country. As suggested by the relationship to labour market and skill development characteristics, there is cross-national variability in the size of the field-of-study mismatch wage penalty, as shown in Table  2 . In fact, the field-of-study mismatch wage penalty among workers who do not downgrade is statistically significant only in Estonia, Ireland and Italy; in the majority of countries, there is no wage penalty for mismatched worker by field who are well qualified in their jobs (the estimate is non-significant in 18 countries). In Estonia, Ireland and Italy, the field-of-study mismatch wage penalty without overqualification is around 9%. In Ireland and Italy, there is a penalty for field-of-study mismatch that does not bring about overqualification, but there is no additional field-of-study penalty when workers are already overqualified. One way to interpret this is that overqualification overrides field-of-study mismatch and field-of-study has little value once workers are overqualified. Table 2 The wage penalty of field-of-study mismatch and overqualification Full size table In Austria, Canada, Estonia, Flanders (Belgium), Germany and the Netherlands, the field-of-study mismatch penalty exists only among the overqualified. This is the additional penalty that overqualified workers receive because of field-of-study mismatch; it is not the sum of a field-of-study penalty and the overqualification penalty. Field saturation is predictive of a higher likelihood of individual field-of-study mismatch. The demand for skills in the labour market is one of the drivers of mismatch: when there are more graduates from a particular field than jobs available in that field, some necessarily need to look elsewhere for a job. Some of these workers may find work in another field for which they are overqualified; others will be adequately matched by their qualifications. The fact that in most countries, there is no significant wage penalty associated with field-of-study mismatch when workers are not overqualified (Table  2 ) and that overqualification accounts for only a part of the total field-of-study mismatch (Table  1 ) suggests that training is already producing sufficient skills to allow at least some, but not all, workers to move across fields at the same qualification level.

PurposeThe purpose of this study is to investigate the boundary conditions between objective overqualification and perceived overqualification. In addition, we aim to investigate the mediation patterns between objective overqualification, perceived overqualification and job satisfaction.Design/methodology/approachA two-wave survey was conducted with 382 new entrants of job market. Data was analyzed with Process 3.5 in SPSS 26.0 to test the hypothesized moderated mediation model.FindingsResults indicated that perceived overqualification fully mediated the relationship between objective overqualification and job satisfaction. In addition, the relationship between objective overqualification and perceived overqualification was significant unless employees perceived high internal employment opportunities but low external employment opportunities at the same time. Same moderating pattern was also evident in the indirect effect of objective overqualification? Perceived overqualification? Job satisfaction.Research limitations/implicationsThis study has theoretical and practical implications for personnel management. Theoretically, this study contributed to the understanding of the relationship between objective overqualification and perceived overqualification. Practically, this study found that offering internal employment opportunities can mitigate the perception of overqualification when employees perceive limited external employment opportunities.Originality/valueThis is one of few studies that stressed the boundary conditions between objective overqualification and perceived overqualification under the framework of relative deprivation theory. In addition, this study provided time-lagged evidence of the relationship between objective overqualification, perceived overqualification and job satisfaction.

game that has become a popular instrument of economic experiments. underemployment Working at a job for which one is overqualified, or working part-time This glossary of economics is a list of definitions containing terms and concepts used in economics, its sub-disciplines, and related fields. cartel Any group of firms that colludes and acts as a single coordinated whole to restrict output and drive up prices. credit… full employment output (Y*) How much output is produced in the economy when full… underemployment Working at a job for which one is overqualified, or working part-time when full-time work is desired.

labour market. According to media reports, Ukrainian highly qualified people often take on jobs for which they are overqualified due to various hurdles - including The integration of immigrants in Germany describes the historical development, political frameworks and social dynamics through which migrants and refugees have been incorporated into German society since 1945. The employment rate of the immigrant population in Germany is currently 70% – this is more than in most other comparable EU countries and the highest value achieved to date. The immigration of 11 million people of working age in Germany has mitigated the worsening shortage of skilled workers. (p. 9) The recognition of high-quality foreign educational qualifications was made considerably easier between 2014 and 2024 (p. 12) . Almost two-thirds of immigrants of working age who have lived in Germany for at least five years say they have advanced German language skills. Although this proportion is somewhat lower than in the rest of the EU, Germany has shown particularly significant improvements in the language skills of immigrants. Germany's "competitive disadvantage" compared to long-standing colonial powers must be taken into account, which is evident in the fact that only relatively few immigrants in Germany had a native-speaker command of German when they arrived. (p. 12 f.) After five years of residence, more than four-fifths of immigrants who originally had an intermediate level of German speak fluent German (p. 13) More than half of all immigrants of working age have attended a language course or are currently taking one. Only in Luxembourg and the Nordic countries is this proportion higher. (p. 14) The OECD summarizes the positive aspects of developments in Germany with the words: "Germany has invested significantly in integration over the past two decades, and these efforts appear to have paid off. The integration results in Germany are in many respects favourable by international comparison At the federal level and in almost every federal state, the office of a foreigners' or integration commissioner has also been created. The German Islam Conference was opened by the Federal Minister of the Interior in September 2006 as an institutionalized dialogue process between the German state and Muslims in Germany. In a 2012 publication by the Federal Agency for Civic Education, the state of integration was described as "not satisfactory despite the National Integration Plan of 2007", as significant differences between people with and without a migration background persist. In March 2016, Germany's Federal Center for Health Education, under the assumption that at least some of the migrants would need sex education, launched a website aimed at the newcomers. Teaching everything from masturbation, first-time sex, family planning, sexually transmitted diseases, to respect for members of the LGBTQ community, the site drew some criticism because of the graphic depictions and descriptions of sexual acts. In this context, the IAB stressed the need for sufficient high-quality and flexible childcare options so that women can attend language and integration courses and then be integrated into the labour market. According to media reports, Ukrainian highly qualified people often take on jobs for which they are overqualified due to various hurdles - including language skills requirements and delays in the recognition of training. The West Mecklenburg employment agency reported that of the 1,497 participants registered for German courses offered to refugees in 2015/2016, only 716 attended them to the end. The magazine "Fakt" of the Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk concludes that this rate is also likely to apply to other employment agencies and that a large part of the 300 million euros invested in German courses for refugees in 2016 was therefore "wasted". In January 2017, only 40% of refugees registered as job seekers with the Federal Employment Agency (BA) were registered as unemployed. Although anyone who is looking for work as an employee and reports this to the BA is classified as "job seeker," anyone who is not immediately available to the labour market – for example, because they are taking part in a language and integration course, an internship, further training or a labour market policy measure such as a job opportunity or are subject to an employment ban – is not considered unemployed. Wolfgang Clemens understands "socialization" as a process "in which people are encouraged to act, challenged and thus engaged by social structures and programs". For pensioners, social integration no longer takes place through gainful employment, but is limited to socialization through family, social networks, leisure time and consumption. Unlike for all other age groups, society does not provide typical regulations for (old) age (such as attending kindergarten and school, vocational training and practice, and looking after one's own Almost two-thirds of immigrants of working age who have lived in Germany for at least five years say they have advanced German language skills. Although this proportion is somewhat lower than in the rest of the EU, Germany has shown particularly significant improvements in the language skills of immigrants. Germany's "competitive disadvantage" compared to long-standing colonial powers must be taken into account, which is evident in the fact that only relatively few immigrants in Germany had a native-speaker command of German when they arrived. (p. The differences in living conditions are often smaller than in other countries, and the employment rates of immigrants are high by international comparison." (p. 34) The OECD study also lists "vulnerable" groups that require special support: (p. 16) Immigrant women with small children, Female refugees in general and Immigrants with a low level of education. The OECD also considers it necessary to "address the challenges in the area of public perception" (p. 29).