An amino acid-based diet contains specific nutritional flaws
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Peer-reviewed literature establishes that alternative protein or individual plant-based amino acid sources have nutritional limitations, such as lower bioavailability or insufficient amounts of specific essential amino acids.
Protein is a fundamental macronutrient in the human diet. It supplies our organisms with essential amino acids, which are needed for the growth and maintenance of cells and tissues. Conventional protein sources, despite their complete amino acid profiles and excellent digestibility, have a proven negative impact on the environment. Furthermore, their production poses many ethical challenges. This review aims to present nutritional, more ethical, and environmentally friendly alternatives that could serve as potential protein sources for the population. The available literature on alternative protein sources has been analyzed. Based on the research conducted, various products have been identified and described, including plant-based protein sources such as soybeans, peas, faba beans, lupins, and hemp seeds; aquatic sources such as algae, microalgae, and water lentils; as well as insect-based and microbial protein sources, and cell-cultured meat. Despite numerous advantages, such as a lower environmental impact, higher ethical standards of production, and beneficial nutritional profiles, alternative protein sources are not without limitations. These include lower bioavailability of certain amino acids, the presence of antinutritional compounds, technological challenges, and issues related to consumer acceptance. Nevertheless, with proper dietary composition, optimization of production processes, and further technological advancements, presented alternatives can constitute valuable and sustainable protein sources for the growing global population.
Below, we describe in detail selected types of leguminous plants that can be considered great alternative protein sources. 3.1.1. Soybean Soybean ( Glycine max ) is an economically significant food and oilseed crop, serving as a major source of plant-based protein and oils. This nutrient-rich legume has been a staple in traditional Asian diets for thousands of years and is now gaining popularity in Western countries as a versatile protein source used in a wide range of food products [ 31 ]. Soy protein is considered a complete protein as it contains all essential amino acids necessary for human nutrition.
It offers significant nutritional and environmental benefits, serving as a rich source of plant-based protein and essential amino acids, making it a valuable crop for both human and animal nutrition [ 64 ]. Faba bean seeds are rich in protein, with a content of approximately 20–35% on a dry matter basis. The major proteins are globulin storage proteins, enzymes, and lectins. In the faba bean seed, proteins are mostly stored in cotyledon, with globulins, albumin, prolamin, and glutenin being the most abundant, accounting for nearly 80% of the total seed protein in weight [ 65 , 66 ].
Compared to cereals, dry faba bean seeds are rich in lysine but have lower levels of sulfur-containing amino acids such as methionine, cysteine, and tryptophan. In contrast, most cereal grains are low in lysine but high in these sulfur-containing amino acids. This complementary amino acid profile makes faba beans and cereals ideal for pairing in a plant-based diet, ensuring a more balanced and complete protein intake [ 67 , 68 ]. The lipid content of broad beans is relatively low, typically ranging from 0.70% to 2.00% of their dry weight.
They can be consumed as whole, peeled seeds or in the form of processed products such as oil, flour, and protein isolate [ 106 ]. Although the hemp variety and environmental conditions have an impact on the composition and nutritional value of the seeds, they typically contain about 20–25% easily digestible and amino acid-rich protein and 25–35% fat, of which 90% are unsaturated fatty acids. Hemp oil is a rich source of essential unsaturated fatty acids, particularly linoleic acid, α-linolenic acid, and oleic acid. Carbohydrates constitute about 20–30% of the weight of hemp seeds, the majority of which is dietary fiber, both soluble and insoluble in a 20:80 ratio.
Although the protein content can vary depending on the type of seaweed, it typically ranges from 10% to 30% of their dry mass. Seaweeds are considered a valuable source of plant protein,
globosa has traditionally been used as a food source for humans in some Asian countries, such as Thailand, Laos, and Cambodia. Certain species have an exceptionally high protein content, ranging from 35 to 40% of dry mass, and contain a spectrum of essential amino acids comparable to soy. The essential amino acid profile of duckweed is more balanced than most plant proteins and closely resembles that of animal protein. Its nutritional value is comparable to alfalfa, particularly in terms of lysine and arginine. Additionally, duckweed contains high levels of leucine, threonine, valine, isoleucine, and phenylalanine.
Microbial proteins have high nutritional value because they contain all eight essential dietary amino acids [ 180 ]. The protein content in dry matter varies across sources: fungi contain 30–45%, microalgae 40–60%, yeast 45–55%, and bacteria 50–65% [ 178 ]. Besides proteins, SCP includes carbohydrates, nucleic acids, fats, minerals, and vitamins. It is also a good source of B vitamins and polyunsaturated fatty acids, such as linoleic acid [ 181 , 182 ]. When it comes to fat content, bacteria have the lowest levels at 1–3%, while microalgae boast the highest, ranging from 7 to 20% of dry matter [ 178 ].
Another study suggests that 35% of calories from animal-source foods may be necessary for a nutritionally adequate diet [ 253 ]. Given the heterogeneity of results and methodological flaws in studies of the health effects of plant-based diets, rigorous, randomized, controlled trials of all newly proposed environmentally protective diets are needed. These studies should include validated biomarkers of nutritional status and assess the levels of supplementation and/or fortification that would be required to ensure adequate micronutrient and protein intake [ 254 , 255 ].
Amino acids are building blocks for protein synthesis and are essential to every metabolic process. A well-balanced diet is one in which all required amino acids are present in the food that is eaten. Unfortunately, this is not always the case and nutritional supplements can be used to make up the balance of the required amino acids. Supplements can be produced from different sources including animals, plants and microbial organisms. Animal sources such as fish and beef can generally be complete but require lengthy periods for growth and harvesting. These sources, however, are also susceptible to diseases and contaminations. Amino acids derived from individual plants do not form the basis for a complete diet and a mixture of plants is required for a healthy diet. This requirement is because individual plant proteins do not contain all nine of the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts. Microorganisms that have been used to produce amino acids include bacteria, fungus, and algae. These microorganisms can be genetically engineered to over produce specific proteins or amino acids. Algae has received much less attention than bacteria, yeast and fungi. The goal of this thesis is to establish a base case for amino acid production from non-genetically modified algae by investigating the effect of different growth parameters. The selection of the specific strain of algae is based on choosing a strain that can be cultured efficiently and economically. Algae can be divided into fr
Amino Acids Production for Galdieria sulphuraria Under Different Stressors Skip to main content Amino Acids Production for Galdieria sulphuraria Under Different Stressors Loading...
A well-balanced diet is one in which all required amino acids are present in the food that is eaten. Unfortunately, this is not always the case and nutritional supplements can be used to make up the balance of the required amino acids. Supplements can be produced from different sources including animals, plants and microbial organisms. Animal sources such as fish and beef can generally be complete but require lengthy periods for growth and harvesting. These sources, however, are also susceptible to diseases and contaminations. Amino acids derived from individual plants do not form the basis for a complete diet and a mixture of plants is required for a healthy diet.
This requirement is because individual plant proteins do not contain all nine of the essential amino acids in sufficient amounts. Microorganisms that have been used to produce amino acids include bacteria, fungus, and algae. These microorganisms can be genetically engineered to over produce specific proteins or amino acids. Algae has received much less attention than bacteria, yeast and fungi. The goal of this thesis is to establish a base case for amino acid production from non-genetically modified algae by investigating the effect of different growth parameters. The selection of the specific strain of algae is based on choosing a strain that can be cultured efficiently and economically.
Algae can be divided into freshwater and saltwater environments, and both approaches have issues researchers must handle in growing and harvesting algae for protein production. For example, freshwater algae can be contaminated by a large number of microorganisms and the procedure for maintaining a monoculture free from contaminations is very difficult for mass
A Box-Behnken experimental design was used to investigate amino acid production in this algal strain with the manipulated parameters being sugar sources and concentrations of macronutrients (carbon, nitrogen and phosphate). The amino acids that are directly correlated to the concentration of these macronutrients are serine, histidine, arginine, valine, phenylalanine, isoleucine, leucine, and proline. A poor correlation was observed between the concentration of the manipulated macronutrients and the amino acids aspartic acid, glutamic acid, glycine, threonine, alanine, tyrosine, cysteine, methionine, and lysine.
Different sugars influence amino acid productions, even with the same carbon number and molecular weight. G. sulphuraria fed with glucose has the capability to produce higher amino acid concentrations compared to the same medium with a substituted sugar type, mannitol, using equivalent molar mass. This response is strongly noticeable with a growth medium supplied with xylose, in which G. sulphuraria produces greater amino acid concentrations compared to arabinose. When G. sulphuraria is grown on xylose, after 48 hours, the culture contains more amino acids than was observed with the other three sugar types.
The only exception was for the concentration of aspartic acid when compared to growth on glucose. In this case, when grown on xylose, the aspartic acid concentration decreased by 178%. The superior production of amino acids from a xylose containing medium, which has an increasing value of 70% for serine, 61% for histidine, 75% for arginine, 78% for valine, 71% for phenylalanine, 71% for isoleucine, 70% for leucine, 80% for proline, 48% for glutamic acid, 95% for glycine, 69% for threonine, 76% for alanine, 84 % for tyrosine, 74% for cysteine, 46% for methionine, and 80% for lysine, suggests that amino acid production is irrelevant to the number of carbons in sugars.
Item Type http://purl.org/coar/resource_type/c_46ec Title Amino Acids Production for Galdieria sulphuraria Under Different Stressors Alternative License Other License Text / Link This thesis is made available by the University of Alberta Libraries with permission of the copyright owner solely for non-commercial purposes. This thesis, or any portion thereof, may not otherwise be copied or reproduced without the written consent of the copyright owner, except to the extent permitted by Canadian copyright law. Subject/Keywords Amino acids Sugars Galdieria sulphuraria Language en Location Time Period Source Collections Theses and Dissertations Full item page
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